Photoshop Action Zoom Blurring Effect

Photo Effects: Action Zoom Blurring Effect By Steve Patterson, Photoshop Essentials. com ACTion Zoom BLurring EffECT In this Photoshop photo effects tutorial, we’ll learn how to add some action and a sense of motion to a photo with a zoom blur effect. We’ll use Photoshop’s Radial Blur filter to add the initial blurring, then we’ll bring back some of the original image using a layer mask and the Gradient Tool. Not only is this a great (and popular) way to help bring an image to life, but the entire effect can be completed in less than five minutes once you’re comfortable with the steps.Here’s the photo I’ll be using for this tutorial: The original image. Here’s how it will look after adding the blur effect: Let’s get started! The final â€Å"action zoom† effect. Step 1: Duplicate The Background Layer The first step in creating our action zoom effect is to duplicate the Background layer so we can work on a separate c opy of the image, which will allow us to bring back some of the original image later. With our photo newly opened in Photoshop, if we look in the Layers panel, we can see that we currently have one layer, the Background layer, which is the layer than contains our photo:The original image appears on the Background layer in the Layers panel. This Photoshop Tutorial  © 2009 Steve Patterson, Photoshop Essentials. com. Not To Be Reproduced Or Redistributed Without Permission. 1 Photo Effects: Action Zoom Blurring Effect By Steve Patterson, Photoshop Essentials. com To duplicate the Background layer, go up to the Layer menu in the menu Bar at the top of the screen, choose new, and then choose Layer via Copy. Or, for a faster way to duplicate a layer in Photoshop, use the keyboard shortcut Ctrl+J (Win) / Command+J (Mac): Go to Layer > New > Layer via Copy, or press Ctrl+J (Win) / Command+J (Mac).Either way you choose tells Photoshop to make a copy of the layer, and if we look again in th e Layers panel, we can see that we now have two layers. The original Background layer is on the bottom, while a brand new layer named â€Å"Layer 1† sits above it. If we look at the preview thumbnails to the left of the layer names, we can see that both layers contain the same image, which means we can now do whatever we want to the image on â€Å"Layer 1† and the original photo will remain safe and unharmed on the Background layer below it: An exact copy of the image now appears on â€Å"Layer 1† above the Background layer.Step 2: Apply The radial Blur filter With â€Å"Layer 1† selected in the Layers panel (it should be highlighted in blue), go up to the filter menu at the top of the screen, choose Blur, and then choose radial Blur: Go to Filter > Blur > Radial Blur. This brings up Photoshop’s Radial Blur dialog box. The Radial Blur filter gives us a choice of two different types of blurring – Spin and Zoom. Since we’re creating a z oom effect, set the Blur method option on the left side of the dialog box to Zoom. Directly below the Blur Method option is the Quality option. Choose Best for the quality.We control how much blurring is applied to the image with the Amount option at the top of the dialog box. The higher the Amount value we select, the more blurring is applied. Drag the slider towards the right to increase the Amount value, or drag it towards the left to decrease it. Unfortunately, the Radial Blur filter doesn’t give us a preview of the effect, so you’ll probably need to try a few different values before you find the one that works best for your image. I’ll explain how to do that in a moment. I’m going to set my Amount value to 50, but the value you end up choosing may be different.Finally, use the Blur Center box on the right side of the Radial Blur dialog box to set the point where the blur will appear to be â€Å"zooming† out from. Simply click inside the box to set the point. Again, there’s no way to preview the effect before running the filter so be prepared to try a few times before you get it right. I want my blur effect to appear to be coming from behind the girl’s head, so I’m going to click above and to the right of center in the box to set my point. Set the blur type, quality, amount and â€Å"zoom point†. This Photoshop Tutorial  © 2009 Steve Patterson, Photoshop Essentials. com.Not To Be Reproduced Or Redistributed Without Permission. 2 Photo Effects: Action Zoom Blurring Effect By Steve Patterson, Photoshop Essentials. com Click OK when you’re done to exit out of the dialog box. Depending on the speed of your computer, as well as the size and complexity of your image, you may need to wait a bit for Photoshop to finish applying the blur, so don’t panic if it seems like nothing is happening. After waiting a few seconds for Photoshop to do its thing, here is my image with the zoom blur ap plied: It may take a few tries before you get the results you want with the Radial Blur filter.If you’re not happy with your initial blur results and want to try again, first undo the filter by going up to the Edit menu at the top of the screen and choosing undo radial Blur. Or, for a faster way to undo the filter, use the keyboard shortcut Ctrl+Z (Win) / Command+Z (Mac): Undo the blur effect with Edit > Undo Radial Blur, or press Ctrl+Z (Win) / Command+Z (Mac). Then, to quickly bring the Radial Filter dialog box back up, press Ctrl+Alt+F (Win) / Command+Option+F (Mac). Choose a different Amount value and/or set a different point for the zoom effect in the Blur Center box, then click OK to run the filter again.You can undo and redo the filter as many times as you need until you get the results you want. Step 3: Add A Layer mask The problem with our blur effect is that it’s covering up the entire image, which isn’t really what we want. In my case, the blur effect is distorting the girl’s face, so I want to hide the effect in that part of the image and allow the original photo to show through. We can do that easily using a layer mask. With â€Å"Layer 1† still selected, click on the Layer mask icon at the bottom of the Layers panel. It’s the icon that looks like a rectangle with a round hole in the center of it:Click on the Layer Mask icon. Nothing will appear to happen in the document window, but a layer mask thumbnail appears to the right of the preview thumbnail for â€Å"Layer 1† in the Layers panel, letting us know that we’ve added our layer mask. If you look closely at the thumbnail, you’ll see a white highlight border around it, which tells us that the layer mask, not the layer itself, is selected: The highlight border around the layer mask thumbnail tells us that the mask, not the layer, is selected. This Photoshop Tutorial  © 2009 Steve Patterson, Photoshop Essentials. com. Not To Be Repro duced Or Redistributed Without Permission. Photo Effects: Action Zoom Blurring Effect By Steve Patterson, Photoshop Essentials. com Step 4: Select The gradient Tool We’re going to draw a black-to-white gradient on the layer mask to hide part of the blur effect and create a nice, smooth transition between the effect on â€Å"Layer 1† and the original image on the Background layer below it. To draw the gradient, we’ll need Photoshop’s gradient Tool, so select it from the Tools panel. You can also select the Gradient Tool by pressing the letter g on your keyboard: Select the Gradient Tool. Step 5: Select The Black to White gradientWith the Gradient Tool selected, right-click (Win) / Control-click (Mac) anywhere inside the document window to quickly bring up the gradient Picker. Click on the Black to White gradient to select it. It’s the third gradient from the left, top row: Click on the Black to White gradient in the Gradient Picker to select it. Cli ck anywhere outside of the Gradient Picker to close out of it when you’re done. Step 6: Select The radial gradient By default, the Gradient Tool is set to draw a standard linear gradient, but we also have different styles to choose from, all of which can be selected from the options Bar at the top of the screen.You’ll see a row of five icons, each one representing a different shape for the gradient (Linear, Radial, Angle, Reflected, and Diamond). Select radial gradient by clicking on its icon (second one from the left): Select the Radial Gradient. Step 7: Drag out A radial gradient To Hide Part of The Blur Effect I want to allow the girl’s face to show through the blurring effect, so with the Gradient Tool, the Black to White gradient and the Radial Gradient style selected, I’ll click in the center of her face to set my starting point for the gradient.Then I’ll simply drag my mouse towards the left until I’m just beyond her hair. The area in between the starting and end points of the gradient will become a smooth transition area between the blurring effect on â€Å"Layer 1† and the original image on the Background layer below it. Since I’m drawing a radial gradient, the gradient will extend 360 ° around my starting point (which means it doesn’t really matter which direction you drag from the starting point), creating a circular shape with black in the center and gradually changing to white as it extends out in all directions:Drag out a Radial Gradient across the area where you want to hide the blur effect and reveal the original photo underneath. Since we drew the gradient on the layer mask, not on the layer itself, we don’t see the gradient in the document window. This Photoshop Tutorial  © 2009 Steve Patterson, Photoshop Essentials. com. Not To Be Reproduced Or Redistributed Without Permission. 4 Photo Effects: Action Zoom Blurring Effect By Steve Patterson, Photoshop Essentials. com I nstead, we see the results of the gradient on the layer mask. The girl’s face is now visible through the blurring effect:Drawing the gradient on the layer mask reveals part of the original image underneath. Even though we can’t see the gradient in the document window, we can see it if we look at the layer mask thumbnail in the Layers panel. The black area represents the part of the layer that’s now hidden from view. As the gradient becomes lighter towards the edges, more of the layer becomes visible. The white areas are where the layer is completely visible: If you’re not happy with your initial gradient, simply press Ctrl+Z (Win) / Command+Z (Mac) to undo the gradient, then try again.The layer mask thumbnail shows us the radial gradient we added. Step 8: Lower The opacity To fine-Tune The results If you find that your blur effect is too strong, you can reduce its intensity by lowering the opacity of â€Å"Layer 1†. Lowering the layer’s opac ity value will allow more of the original image on the Background layer below it to show through. You’ll find the opacity option in the top right of the Layers panel. Keep an eye on your document window as you adjust the opacity to judge the results.I’m going to lower mine down to around 70% (left): Lower the opacity of â€Å"Layer 1† to reduce the intensity of the blur. And with that, we’re done! Here, after fine-tuning my results with the Opacity option, is my final â€Å"action zoom effect† result: for more Adobe Photoshop tutorials, visit Photoshop Essentials. com @ www. photoshopessentials. com! The final photo effect. This Photoshop Tutorial  © 2009 Steve Patterson, Photoshop Essentials. com. Not To Be Reproduced Or Redistributed Without Permission. 5

Democratic Education in Modern China Essay

Education plays an important role in transforming a society, this follows from its impact on the reasoning of persons, transforming of culture, change of attitude, increased efficiency and also the enhancement of a systematic analysis of some documentations that enable the creation of a new knowledge among other impacts. It enables the transfer of skills from one person to the other and also the sharing of experience that is meant to increase efficiency. Educating society enables the country to develop its human resources. This is enhanced through the imparting of skills that are meant to improve the labour productivity and efficiency in performing varied tasks. Education also impacts communication in a positive manner as the trainees are provided with the skills on how to effectively communicate. Effective communication enables the employees of an organisation to exchange ideas with much easy, hence promoting the sharing of experience that is likely to enhance improved efficiency in some organisation. Education history in China can be traced to have started at the initial stages of the Chinese civilization. It started among the nobles who established educational training for their young ones. The first school that was established in was Shang Hsiang, that was meant to teach the youth and specifically the nobles on some skills as provided by the Chinese culture (Deng, 1). The establishment of Shang Hsiang school can therefore be perceived as the starting point for education in China. Afterwards the government established five national schools that were meant to teach specifically the junior nobles. The national schools thought the six Arts that include rite, mathematics, Calligraphy, Charioteering, Archery and Archery, that formed the six practices of the Chinese culture. Within the same time, hundred schools of thought emerged within the Chinese community having Confucianism as the most popular school of thought. The leader of Confucianism, that is Confucius was perceived as being the originator for the education that was meant to reach the large numbers, that is, educate for the public. Confucius advocated for the provision of education to all the population without discrimination and encouraged the teaching of the students according to their respective ability. The advocating for education for all and according to their ability followed the discrimination that was existing by then in providing educational training because it was only meant for the noble youths, who were the offspring of he nobles. Therefore, this can be perceived as being a setback in the early development of education in China during the Cultural Revolution. The success and the failures of the Cultural Revolution reforms in Education. The success or the failure of the cultural revolution reforms imply the extend to which the educational reforms met the purported purposes as provided by the authority. In the early establishment of schools in China, the process of enhancing education was affected by the political structure, where schools were grouped according to political entities in order to gain favour of social influence. The political structure affected education depending on which school of thought that the leaders of the society regarded as being appropriate as the various schools of thought were in competition. For example, Qin Shi Huang favored for legalism, that is, the Chinese philosophy, and perceived the other schools of thought as being useless (Peterson, 20). Following his attitude, he used to burn books from the other schools of though and buried scholars belonging to the schools of thought that were not preferable according to him. This actions is one of the major setbacks that retarded the development of education in China during the cultural revolution. Confucianism was advocated as the national education doctrine by Emperor Wu of Han. This situation disadvantaged the other schools of thought that never had an upper hand in the Chinese politics, despite their educational content. Otherwise, it was just a matter of the attitude other than the quality of education inherent in different schools of schools of thought. The success of education in China was however boasted by the invention of paper in China. This enabled effective documentation of the educational teachings, and enhanced easy reference and storage. The freedom to access education, that is, the autonomy of education from political influence was enhanced through the defeat of the Chinese empire in the Opium war. This marked the turning point for education standard and access in China. Following the defeat, the modern western education streamed into the country in various languages. It also impacted the various sectors that included the national defence and the technicalities that were used in production. The government also boasted the education by sending numerous students abroad to study varied technical courses. The families also sent their offspring for study in the countries that include the United States of America, Europe and Japan. Towards the end of the 19th Century a number of high learning institutions were established that include the Jiaotong University and also the Peking University. On introducing the western education and deserting the cultural oriented education, the Chinese education system focused in enhancing economic modernisation as the main agenda foe improving the education standard. This direction was provided in 1984 following the designing of laws that were meant to govern the Chinese education system (Hill and Storey, 27). An education plan was also designed in 1985 that was meant to reform the education system. Among the contents on the plan included the five year compulsory education and also the instituting of the State Education Commission. The government devoted funds in the improvement of the education standards and ensuring that more citizens were accessible to education. In China, the policies that have been designed overtime have been alternating between improving the knowledge also the practical application of the knowledge in enhancing national development. This was meant to orient the education system in making it relevant for national development. The government has also been trying to lessen the gaps that exist between the workers and the peasants in terms of literacy. The urban population also seem to be more educated than the rural population, thus the government has also been trying to seal the gap by supplying the rural population with the educational facilities. There has also been an encouragement for the intellectuals to engage in providing manual labour in enhancing national development. Science and technology was offered the first priority in enhancing national development, however social sciences were also perceived as being reinforcing in attaining national development. The vocational training was considered equivalently important. The elite were encouraged to further their capabilities by seeking further training in improving their efficiency and competence. The intellectuals were also encouraged to engage in research that was meant to create new knowledge in integrating it which the knowledge from abroad. The beneficiaries of the criteria that used in selecting students for higher education during the cultural revolution time, where recommendations dependent on political connectivity than merit. The higher education in China can be perceived to have risen following the dynamics in the political policies that have been occurring in the modern China. The need for higher education arose due to the emphasis over professionalisms and the enabling of technical competence. In the early stages of Chinese cultural revolution, a large number of students were enrolled in Red Guard organizations which were the higher learning institutions by then (Williams, 117). In 1970s, according the admission criteria into the Red Guard, one was admitted to the organization only if they were recommended from their work unit and had good political credentials, and on the condition that they were not involved in the manual labour. There were no examinations that were meant to evaluate the ability of the students who were admitted to the University, meaning that there was a possibility for admitting incapable students to the university. Admission into a university heavily depended on political connections of an individual other than merit; therefore one required a political recommendation before joining university. Following the criteria that was used in admitting students into the university, the education standard was reported to had fallen to an extend to which the students were unable to read a book after leaving the university in their respective fields of study. This situation also had an impact of demoralizing the university administrators. The criteria of admission only gave an opportunity to the children of the cadres and the officers who had connections that were to enable them get admission for their children ‘through the back door’. Therefore, following the nature of the criteria that was used to admit students, the students who benefited from the high learning education were the ones who had a political connection that was to enable them secure an admission through the back door. This method of admission disadvantaged the potential students who could have made in better in the university due to lack of political connection. The children of the peasants stood at a disadvantage meaning that the cycle of being politically non-influential was likely to persist, as the politically influential persons were likely to prepare their children to take over after them, hence perpetuating leadership within some families. The Red Guards can be regarded as being naive pawns in an elite struggle other than being rational actors that were to protect their self interests. The criteria that was adapted by the Red Guards in admitting the students into the university portray the Red Guard as being naive pawns in an elite power struggle than rational actors protecting their self interest. This is evident in the situation where the red Guards only engaged in admitting students into the university without any evaluation on whether they have the ability to pursue various courses of their preference. As mentioned early, the graduates never even had the ability to read a book even after graduating from the university. The criteria locked out the children who belonged to his peasant families regardless of their ability to excel in academics. This situation enabled the politically connected persons to reign with fewer competitions from the other members of the society, regardless of their weaknesses because the criteria provided them with a protection against. The aim for the high education was to enable high performance among the students when they are in practice, implying that the admitting of students who do not qualify into the university following their political connections is anti development (Smith and Buckle, 231) The admitting of students who do not qualify for admission will contribute less to national development because the education attained while in the university will have less impact in improving their performance. The red guards were trying to ensure that competition is restrained because of the posts that were to enable them maintain their social classes were likely to be taken by the new elites that were likely to emerge among the peasants, thus it was a strategy over which the peasants were denied the opportunity to compete favorably with the politically connected persons. The dominance was only to be reinforced by restricting the new forces that were likely to emerge from the peasants is they accessed higher education. The Red guards can be regarded as being protecting their interests, but the protecting of their interests was irrational. They can be perceived as being irrational actors following the fact that the criteria was undermining national development, because the graduates were likely to fail meeting the responsibilities entrusted to them with regard to the academic tittles awarded to them. The aim for higher education was to enhance national development, therefore the act of offering education to persons who were certain to contribute less to national development seem to be an irrational act as the purported reasons for offering higher education were never attained. This implies the wasting of resources by the state in educating students whose marginal productivity in contributing to the national development was below the optimal requirements, thus a bogus investment. Thus, making the whole process an irrational. A comparison and contrast between the cultural revolution reforms in education and the educational reforms the were introduced after 1978. Following the failures of the cultural revolution reforms in education in attaining accelerated national development, there arose various reforms after 1978 that were meant to enhance effectiveness in the education system in enabling national development. For instant, during the 1980’s, there were a number of reforms that occurred following the modernization goals that were set by the government. The higher education was regarded as being the foundation for research and training that was meant to enhance national development on doing the application of the knowledge that is created (Jinxia, 219). This is different from the times of cultural revolution where higher education was used for the purpose of prestige and not for enhancing national development. There were also reforms in the management of the higher learning institutions that gave a new focus in terms of the offering opportunity to the students and the content of the courses offered. Following the reforms, the universities were provided with the opportunity of choosing their own curriculum and participation in the various projects. They were also grated an autonomy to hire their staff and manage the funds awarded to them by the government. The university admission criteria also changed, where only the academically able students were to be considered. In making a comparison between the cultural revolution reforms and the reforms after 1978, the reforms during the cultural revolutions were meant to perpetuate education only within the a few individuals in the society in enhancing the reigning of the a few over the majority, therefore, education was used as a strategy to rule. Education was denied to the peasants because offering them education was perceived as being ‘sharpening an iron for oneself’, therefore the reforms in the education system were meant to limit the access to education to a few individuals, that is, the persons who were politically connected. This is contrary to the policy reforms that were enhanced after 1978. After 1978, access to education was made easy, where higher education was meant for the students who were capable (Sakai, 67). That is, everything was done on merit, with less political influence through the enhanced university autonomy. The reforms were guided by the modern development goals that were set, which were supposed to enhance national development through the investing in education. National development was to be enabled through research and development that was to be based on the higher learning institutions. In enabling breakthroughs, the universities were then provided with an incentive of evaluating students before being admitted on ensuring that the education that was offered was to be effective in enhancing national development. The objective of the educational reforms during the cultural revolution was to maintain the societal status held by some families, that is, education was meant only for the nobles. After 1978, the objective of enhancing educational reforms changed from self interest to the realizing of national development through the building of human resources of the country. The results of educational reforms during the cultural revolution is the lagged technological development that was reflected in the retarded national development and also the existence of inequalities within the Chinese community following the nature of reforms that favoured some classes in society at the expense of the rest of the society. The country was also experiencing low labour productivity following the fact that the non-qualified personnels were given the opportunity to lead various institutions or perform some tasks that were entrusted to them. The results for the reforms after 1978 were positively rewarding in enhancing national development (Lu-chai, 93). The country was able to utilize the talents that were inherent in its population non-selectively through the admission to higher learning institutions based on merit. It increased equality in society as all the population later had equal access to education once one’s ability is evident. The country also realized improved labour productivity because the skills attained in higher learning institutions were likely to be applicable in practice following the nature of students admitted to the university. The impact of the dismantling the commune system in China and the return of family farming on the provision and demand for the basic education among the Chinese rural area Education in China was received as the means in which an individual can improve his or her welfare, and this is enhanced through the offering of services using the skills attained through education for compensation. Therefore, education was perceived as being an investment that was meant improve one’s welfare (Price, 311). The commune system in China can be perceived as a factor that contributed to persons in society not to work hard, because they were likely to get an equal share to the ones who did not work. Therefore, people, and more especially the ones who were living in the rural areas and who depended on farming did not see the need for seeking education as all their requirements were met communally. The dismantling of the commune system by the adaptation of the return to family farming affected the perception of persons in the Chinese society and more especially persons staying in the rural areas who heavily depended on farming. The implication of the dismantling is that each family was expected to struggle in satisfying its needs. Following the high population of the the Chinese people, the population never had a reasonable land to do farming on sustaining the population, therefore, the population turned to seeking education as a means of gaining skills that will enable then to earn a living. Therefore, the dismantling of the communism system to family farming can be perceived to have triggered the demand for basic education following the need to attain skills in enhancing an improved welfare. The family setups took the responsibility of ensuring that their children were educated in enhancing an improved welfare of both the family and for their children, thus is was perceived as being a gateway to success. The reasons as to why vocational training was popular during the reform period compared to the Maoist era. There were emphasis during the times of 1949-76 concerning the significance of vocational training in applying education to meet production requirements. The vocational education became popular after the 1978 reforms (Peake, 32). The logic behind vocational training popularity after the 1978 reforms is that during the times, that is, before 1978, the vocational training was perceived as being an inferior education to be offered to the peasant children, thus making it unpopular. During the reform period, vocational training became popular following the agenda for attaining modernization in China, therefore children were encouraged to join vocational training that was meant to equip the population with the skills that were supposed to delver the country into the desired modernization. The popularity of vocational training can also be attributed to the the dismantling of communism system in 1982 that lead to the family based farming. The dismantling of communism provided an incentive over which society members saw the need to acquire the skills that were expected to earn them a living hence an avenue over which vocational training attained popularity. The requirements for getting a university admission were based on merit during the times of the reforms, thus there was a large number of persons who were not likely to attain an entry into the university education. Therefore, as an alternative for attaining skills, the population opted for vocational training that had less requirements for training. The number of vocational training institutions were also many compared to the universities, therefore due to resource scarcity a large number of persons were likely to get vocational training than university education. Despite the large number of vocational training institutions, the institutions were also accessible even to the persons leaving in the rural areas, on the reason that the population is likely to utilize the reasons that are easily accessible than the ones that are far reaching. Work Cited Deng Peng. Private Education in Modern China. Greenwood Publishing Group. 1997. Hill, p. and Storey Colin. Facing Up to China: A Series of Essays from the Making of Modern. Brtistol Polytechnic Library. 1987. Lu-chai Chung. A History of Democratic Education in Modern China. University Publications of America. 1977. Jinxia Dong and Dong Jinxia. Women, Sports, and Society in Modern China: Holding Up More Than Half the Sky. F Cass. 2003. Peake Henderson. Nationalism and Education in Modern China. University of California. 2007. Peterson Glen. The Power of Words: literacy and Revolution in South China, 1949-95. UBC Press. 1998. Price, R. Education in Modern China. Routledge. 2004. Sakai Robert. Politics and Education in Modern China. Harvard University. 1953. Smith Douglas and Bucklew Neil. Middle Education in the Middle Kingdom: The Chinese Junior High School in Modern Taiwan. Praeger. 1997. Williams Michael and Humprys Graham. Citizenship Education and Lifelong Learning: Power and place. Nova Publishers. 2003.

Apj Abdul Kalam Quotes

I wonder why some people tend to see science as something which takes man away from God. As I look at it, the path of science can always wind through the heart. For me, science has always been the path to spiritual enrichment and self-realisation. The best way to win was to not need to win. The best performances are accomplished when you are relaxed and free of doubt. One of the important functions of prayer, I believe, is to act as a stimulus to creative ideas. Within the mind are all the resources required for successful living. Ideas are present in the consciousness, which when released and given scope to grow and take hape, can lead to successful events. God, our Creator, has stored within our minds and personalities, great potential strength and ability. Prayer helps to tap and develop these powers. I have always been a religious person in the sense that I maintain a working partnership with God. I was aware that the best work required more ability than I possessed and therefore I needed help that only God could give me. I made a true estimate of my own ability, then raised it by 50 per cent and put myself in Gods hands. In this partnership, I have always received all the power I needed, and in fact have actually felt it flowing through me. Today, I can affirm that the kingdom of God is within you in the form of this power, to help achieve your goals and realise your dreams. I have used the word flow at many places without really elaborating its meaning. What is this flow? And what are these Joys? I could call them moments of magic. I see an anology between these moments and the high that you experience when you play badminton or go Jogging. Flow is a sensation we experience when we act with total involvement. During flow, action follows action according to an internal logic that seems to need no conscious intervention on the part of the worker. There is no hurry, there are no distracting demands on ones attention. The past and the future disappear. So does the distinction between self and the activity. I have always considered the price of perfection prohibitive and allowed mistakes as a part of the learning process. I prefer a dash of daring and persistence to perfection. To succeed in your mission, you must have single-minded devotion to your goal. Individuals like myself are often called Workaholics. I question this term because that implies a pathological condition or an illness. If I do what I desire more than anything lse in the world and which makes me happy, such work can never be an aberration. Words from the twenty-sixth Psalm come to my mind while I work: Examine me, O Lord, and prove me. Total commitment is the common denominator among all successtul men and women. Happiness, satisfaction, and success in life depend on making the right choices, the winning choices. There are forces in life working for you and against you. One must distinguish the beneficial forces from the malevolent ones and choose correctly between them. God can do tremendous things through the person who doesnt care about who gets he credit. Ego involvement must go, writes [Robert] Schuller. Before God trusts you with success, you have to prove yourself humble enough to handle the big prize. It has been my personal experience that the true flavour, the real fun, the continuous excitement of work lie in the process of doing it rather than in having it over and done with. A person with belief never grovels before anyone, whining and whimpering that its all too much, that he lacks support, that he is being treated unfairly. Instead, such a person tackles problems head on and then affirms, As a child of God, I am greater han anything that can happen to me. Looking back on my days as a young scientist, I am aware that one of the most constant and powerful urges I experienced was my desire to be more than what I was at that moment. I desired to feel more, learn more, express more. I desired to grow, improve, purify, expand. I never used any outside influence to advance my career. All I had was the inner urge to seek more within myself. The key to my motivation has always been to look at how far I had still to go rather than how far I had come. After all, what is life but a mixture of unsolved problems, ambiguous victories, and morphous defeats? The trouble is that we often merely analyse life instead of dealing with it. People dissect their failures for causes and effects, but seldom deal with them and gain experience to master them and thereby avoid their recurrence. This is my belief: that through difficulties and problems God gives us the opportunity to grow. So when your hopes and dreams and goals are dashed, search among the wreckage, you may find a golden opportunity hidden in the ruins. Great dreams of great dreamers are always transcended. Are you aware of your inner signals? Do you trust them? Do you have the focus of ontrol over your life in your own hands? Take this from me, the more decisions you can make avoiding external pressures, which will constantly try to manipulate and immobilise you, the better your life will be, the better your society will become. The entire nation will beniflt from having strong, inner-directed people as their leaders. e sa difficult game. You can win it only by retaining your birthright to be a person. And to retain this right, you will have to be willing to take the social or external risks involved in ignoring pressures to do things the way others say they should be done. Gods providence is your inheritance.

The Business Environment in Relation to Morrisons Essay

The Business Environment in Relation to Morrisons - Essay Example The details further establish the salient use of the variables in rebuilding the supermarkets’ strategic framework. The company’s factors of success Morrisons has competently claimed its position in the U.Ks retail market through the lead in delivery of quality food and groceries. The supermarket chain has grown tremendously after merging with Safeways Company. Morrisons currently has the capability to make on-point deliveries effectively than the competitors. The outlet discovered that, some of its drawbacks resulted from poor distribution and delivery channels. Therefore, it strategized accordingly, and in the modern day, the company has a neat flow of goods to reach the final consumer via the outlets it established. The company has reduced the overall overheads through the procurement of privately owned transportation means, and outlets. The company enjoys customer loyalty through the delivery of quality goods satisfactorily at the time that the consumer may perceive the need (Henry, 2008: 66). Morrisons Company seeks to deliver value profitably to the consumer for mutual benefits. It first establishes customers’ needs and determines the most pressing that call for immediate attention. The company wins over the competition through intense research to ascertain any changes in the markets and the availability of new markets. Suppliers’ core value to a business is to deliver materials and inventories. Morrisons realized that, their suppliers were incompetent and the costs of sourcing them were relatively high. Therefore, the supermarket has established supply chains thus, resulting to reduced costs of materials and effective distribution of products to its various chain stores. The main factors towards the growth of supermarkets are; customer satisfaction, reduced costs hence considerably low prices, and effective delivery of quality products (Bensoussan & Fleisher, 2008: 68). The supermarket has continuously erected food stores in a n attempt to reach all entire market, which still remains inadequately catered for. Through the strategic mission and vision statements, the company propels the set plans and strategies to achieving its goals and objectives. Morrisons’ vision and mission statements express their practices inertly, and more emphasis relates to customer satisfaction. The company enjoys economies of scale by the fast and the effective rate of diversification of investment.  

A Tour to Maasai Mara Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

A Tour to Maasai Mara - Assignment Example At first, I was worried because I had never taken a flight in such a big airplane. I also had the phobia of heights. My parents seemed relaxed probably because they were used to flying. Air hostesses were moving around the plane checking whether the passengers required any assistance. We were even served with drinks. My brother and I took coffee while my parents took wine. After eight hours, the plane landed on Nairobi’s Jomo Kenyatta international airport. â€Å"We are now in Kenya† bellowed my dad. There were two guys waiting for us at the airport and were holding placards bearing my parents’ name. They took us to a waiting van that drove us into a hotel in the city center where were to stay. The two guys were from a tour company with which my dad had made reservations prior to our journey. People from this city looked friendly and were always willing to help us. We were to visit several tourist destinations in Kenya and later Tanzania, a country that neighbor’s Kenya. We first toured Maasai Mara, a region is known world over due to the great wildebeest migration. The aircraft landed on a small airfield in the middle of the lowlands amidst lions and running giraffe. What I saw in Maasai Mara perplexed me. I had never seen a movement of animals as huge as the wildebeest migration. Our tour guide explained that over three million wildebeest migrate from Tanzania’s Serengeti National Park to Kenya’s Maasai Mara National Reserve in search of pastures. This we were told happens annually in the months of July through October. The migrating wildebeest crossed the Mara River where crocodiles would prey on them. It was the largest massacre of the wildebeest and the largest feast for the crocodiles. It was a sight to behold. The wildebeest would dither for hours on the riverbank, striding reluctantly into the river as they calcula ted the risks in the waters.

DEBATE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

DEBATE - Essay Example Tyson 42) Accordingly, the studies do not control do not control for legitimate differences in compensation since qualifications, seniority, merit and business activity related factors are linked to the pay gap between men and women. According to estimates, there is no appreciable difference in men and women’s pay since ‘legitimate’ differences account for the insignificant pay gap. The federal law requires employers to prevent discrimination in their employment activities and provide healthy and safe working environment. For instance, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act 1967 provides for equal opportunities for the minority groups while the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission investigates instances of unequal treatment or discriminatory practices in employment matters (Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, and Wright 66). The Equal Pay Act 1963 requires for equal pay for men and women performing the same jobs while Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978 prohibits discrimination of women on the basis of pregnancy (Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, and Wright 65). According to 2013 statistics, women were paid 78 percent of what men were paid and all the US states experience pay gaps between men and women (Tyson 41). The worst state was Louisiana where women were paid 66 percent of what men were paid. The pay gap is even worse for minority group women since Hispanic women are paid only 54 percent of what men are paid. The women are paid less in both male and female dominated occupations and pay gap is higher for aged women since women aged more than 35 years receive only 75 to 80 percent of what men are paid (Tyson 63). In this case, HR managers must conduct pay audits in order to remedy the pay differentials while women employees must utilize their negotiation skills to attain fair pay. The federal policy makers should consider enacting new legislation that will curb pay gap (Tyson 65). The opponents of pay gap outline that women have surpassed men in college and university

What specific contributions did Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot Essay

What specific contributions did Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot make to the age of the Enlightenment - Essay Example With his ‘Philosophic Letters on the English’, Voltaire conveyed profound appreciation of English life including its religious toleration, political liberty, and freedom of the press. Aside from religious tolerance of the era, he also supported the advocacy for ‘deism’ or a religious perception based on Newtonian principle which assumed the existence of a mechanic (God) that formed the universe. Discuss the significance and the influence of John Locke and Isaac Newton on the Enlightenment. The age of Enlightenment also witnessed growing interest toward influences derived from scientific awareness the concepts of which had flourished through geniuses like Isaac Newton, who had his most remarkable creation of ‘Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy’ published in 1687. The mathematical proofs for his universal law of gravitation as well as the full account of astronomical studies initiated by Galileo, Kepler, and Copernicus were covered in t his work which also pointed out the essential rules of reasoning from which the Universal Law evolved. Consequently, Newton’s ‘Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy’ was crucial to the development of ‘Scientific Revolution’ wherein abiding by such is ascertained to reform a person’s view of the world, of European religious traditions, and of science in ancient times. The ‘Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy’ substantiates four primary rules to follow with the first being the admission of ‘no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearance’. Thus, based on the second rule, ‘to the same natural effects’ humans must ‘as... This paper includes questions and answers on the Enlightenment. Since the Enlightenment demonstrates a post-Renaissance interest focus in man as the enduring subject of intellectual revolution, the advancements of the era greatly favored reformations in philosophies and sciences between the 16th and 18th centuries. Hence, arts and literature were paid limited to negligible attention unlike in the period of Renaissance in which artistic pursuits of various forms counted in almost every aspect of living. Just as the Renaissance broke away from the Middle Ages when religious reign paved the way for the absolute rule of monarchs, so did the Enlightenment impair the spiritual and cultural values that were of indispensable value to arts and literature alike. While the Newtonian science, for instance, inevitably found its way to shape cultural expressions in the west, it highly manifests itself in philosophical forms complied with by Europeans who had attempted to determine parallels of sci entific approach with handling social affairs where discovery to resolve circumstances of human conflicts is of huge concern.

Business Processes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Business Processes - Essay Example The company’s stocks were first traded at NYSE on August 25, 1972 (Wal-Mart, 2012a). Wall-Mart is engaged in the business of operating retail stores of various formats in different parts of the world. Wal-Mart operates restaurants, retail stores, supermarkets, discount stores, hypermarkets, supercenters, apparel stores, warehouse clubs, etc. The products offered in the stores of Wal-Mart includes frozen foods, meat, dairy products, bakery products, baby products, beverages, grocery items, electronic goods, household items and so on. At present the business operations of Wal-Mart is divided into three broad segments. They are: a) the Wal-Mart International segment, b) the Wal-Mart US segment, and c) the Sam's Club segment. Of these three the US segment is the largest of all. Retail stores of various formats are operated by Wal-Mart in all the 50 states of US. Along with this it also operates its retail operations online through walmart.com. The international segment of Wal-Mart has its presence in 26 countries of the world and is also in the business of operating its retail operations in all those countries outside US. ... All these six merchandise units offer different categories of merchandise products through its various types of retail stores located in different parts of US. In the recently published Fortune-500 list Wal-Mart has been ranked second, just behind Exxon Mobil (Wal-Mart, 2012). 1.1 Aims of Wal-Mart Aims of the company can be understood by analyzing the mission and vision statement of the company. 1.1.1 Mission Statement The company tries to provide quality products at an EDLP or everyday low price complemented with comprehensive Customer service. The company tries to offer services and product improving everyday life of customers. The company has modified mission statement in recent years in order to preserve its significance. In accordance to new mission statement the company will provide merchandises to customers in 24 *7 manners. The company emphasizes on their talented human resource pool and treat them as asset for the company. The company also donates thousands of dollars for be tterment of unprivileged population of the society. 1.1.2 Vision Statement Even today’s hypercompetitive business environment Wal-Mart follows traditional vision statement established by Sam Walton (1918-1992). Sam Walton taught them to think from customer’s viewpoint and deliver merchandises complemented with lowest possible prices, superior quality, guaranteed satisfaction, friendly and knowledgeable sales service, free parking, convenient shopping hour and great shopping experience. 1.2 Size of Wal-Mart Size of Wal-Mart can be understood by analyzing their distribution Channel. Wal-Mart operates business in retail chain format hence size should be analyzed in terms of how many stores they have established in USA and other

The changing of cool Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The changing of cool - Essay Example To be intelligent and creative is cool and does have to be a huge thing, it could just be intelligent and creative to your own life, career or anything. It’s now the time that one becomes the cool maker in other words 'The Merchants of cool', such as Mark Zuckerberg who is the creator of Facebook, Steve Jobs who is the creator of Apple or Marc Jacobs etc. It is now the time to change the cool and the mentality of people especially teenagers so that we can have new people like Steve Jobs and Zuckerberg rising; now this is going to be cool in real essence. Due to this ‘being cool’ phenomenon most teenagers are actually losing their individuality to compete with the ever growing modernism and coolness. As Fromm said, if men and women discovered to take up their own conscious selves, completely and freely then they would discover that they are no more alone: they would have themselves for organization. Once one has organization one can experience harmless or benign to ward others. For Fromm, it was the only answer to the problem of the alienated people in regards to today's modernism. The only factor which can preserve mankind right now from its own soul destroying solitude is a person's capability to occupy what is known as the "authentic" self. If you obtain authenticity, you would be compensated with the inner serenity which is necessary to become a free agent. We are now residing in a place where â€Å"economic, public and governmental circumstances do not provide a foundation for the understanding of personality.† So now if we need our authenticity and individuality back we need to work on it ourselves. Intellectuals have said that they just had one thing which is consumerism. The desire of life goods—escapist conformism—would etherize the unrealized starvation for a authentic self. (Boston Review 2013) As discussed earlier, we should look into what the 'makers of cool' do and how they do that which makes the youth of to day so crazy that for them 'being cool' is the top most thing. So frontline did a survey on 'The merchants of cool' , the makers and suppliers of well-known modern lifestyle are the people who have actually made the young people the most well-known customer market in the United States. But the question arises that are these people simply showing teenager wishes or have they started to produce those wishes themselves in a bid to protect this profitable market? And have these people cross the line in their effort to achieve the wishes and money of the youth? Douglass Rushkoff, the frontline reporter, investigates the tactics, methods, and public consequences of these promotion moguls in "The Merchants of cool" survey made by Barak Goodman and Rachel Dretzin, the programs talks with all the top marketers, press professionals and cultural/media experts, and examines the union connection between the press and contemporary young people, because in a way each looks to the other for its ide ntification. Teenagers are the most sought after customers in the market. In a year, The United Sate's young people invested about 100 billion dollars, while influencing their parents’ to invest another 50 billion dollars. But it is not that easy as it

MHE599 - Culminating Project Module 2 - SLP Outline & References Essay

MHE599 - Culminating Project Module 2 - SLP Outline & References - Essay Example sky in his article, Natural Disasters and the Militarization of America discusses how government particularly its leader can use natural disasters as a pretext to militarize America. According to the author, Hurricane Katrina and even the Avian Flu threat were being used by the erstwhile President Bush to justify a greater role for the Military in the countrys civilian affairs. With NRP also eliminating the distinction between a civilian and a national security emergency situation and relief organizations like American Red Cross endorsing military role, the author fears that there will be extreme militarization of America. This article lists all the valid and important Dos and Don’ts which the NGO should carry out or not carry out during a national disaster as part of humanitarian assistance. For example, the article states that if a country as well the representatives of the relevant UN bodies, are unable to properly coordinate with NGO in providing emergency relief responses, the blame will be mainly on the country. NGOs cannot be held for this failure. NGOs do not usually have the mandate to provide the overall co-ordinating framework for disasters. This responsibility falls to the host government and the relevant United Nations authorities This source in the form of a report and document annex submitted by the Select Bipartisan Committee formed to investigate the Preparation for and Response to Hurricane Katrina. This official government committee came up with in-depth findings about the roles of the many government based stakeholders. How these stakeholders performed or underperformed during and aftermath of the Hurricane Katrina. Who can all be blamed or appreciated. In total, this report analyzes all the important stakeholders during Hurricane Katrina and in the aftermath of the Hurricane This article published in the Think Progress website with a Youtube video of Bush’s final Press conference (video has since been removed) focuses on the

President Andrew Jackson Essay Example for Free

President Andrew Jackson Essay Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Jackson, Andrew, the seventh President of the United States. His election in 1828 marked the end of the aristocratic tradition in the Presidency that had prevailed since the nation’s beginning. Jackson, a self- made man, frontiersman, and military hero, was the first President from west of the Appalachians. He was identified with a new kind of democracya democracy embracing the entire population rather than only those who were wealthy or owned property.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Jackson was neither an original nor a profound thinker, and did not always follow or understand the principles of the â€Å"Jacksonian democracy† that bears his name. However, he did know how to interpret the aspirations and viewpoints of the common people who were clamoring for a voice in government. Jackson was skilled and astute politician, who molded a faction, composed mostly of Southerners and Westerners into the Democratic Party.   Although politically conservative and a believer in states’ rights, he expanded the powers of the Presidency and was fervently committed to the preservation of the Union.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Jackson had a domineering personality. He was proud, ambitious, and aggressive. Throughout his life, his temper frequently caused him to act hastily or injudiciously, and he was often swayed by personal prejudices. However, his fearlessness, honesty, and loyalty endeared him to wide sections of the populace. His influence was felt well beyond his two terms, and the period from his election to that of Abraham Lincoln is often referred to as the â€Å"Age of Jackson†. Discussions Early Life   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Jackson was born March 15, 1767, in a backwoods settlement called Waxhaw on the border between North Carolina and South Carolina. Jackson said South Carolina was his birth place, but there has been much controversy on the subject. His father, mother, and two brothers had arrived there in 1765 from Northern Ireland. His parents had been linen drapers. His father, for whom he was named, died in an accident shortly before Andrew was born.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Jackson had attended school for a while before British troops began operating in the Carolinas during the Revolutionary War. Though only 13, Jackson joined a local militia company along with his brother Robert in 1780. Their older brother Hugh had already been killed in the war. After a skirmish with the British in 1781, Jackson and his brother were captured. When a British officer ordered Andrew to polish his boots, he refused and demanded to be treated as a prisoner of war. The angry officer slashed Jackson with his saber, leaving him scarred for life   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The brothers were sent to a military prison, where they contracted smallpox. Their mother won their release. But Robert died on the way home. Not long after, Mrs. Jackson died while nursing two of Andrew’s cousins, who were soldiers imprisoned by the British. Andrew was left alone at the age of 14. â€Å"Old Hickory†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Jackson lived at the Hermitage managing his business holdings until the outbreak of the War of 1812, when he volunteered his services and was commissioned a major general of U.S Volunteers. In 1813 Creek Indians massacred the inhabitants of Fort Mims in what is now Alabama. In 1814, Jackson led his troops against the Creeks, routing them at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. His endurance in the field won Jackson the nickname â€Å"Old Hickory,† after one of his soldiers remarked that he was â€Å"tough as hickory†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Shortly after being commissioned a major general in the United States Army, Jackson expelled the British from Florida. Then with a motley force that included Jean Lafitte’s pirates, he repulsed a British attack on New Orleans. Ironically, the peace treaty had been signed before the battle was fought on January 8, 1815. Jackson’s victory made him a national hero. In 1818, invades Florida and defeats Seminole Indians. In 1821, was appointed military governor of Florida while also resigned within the year. 1823, he was again elected to U.S Senate from Tennessee and resigns in 1825. Then on 1828 he was elected President of the United States. First Administration (1829- 1833)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Jackson chose his cabinet from among his and Calhoun’s supporters without much regard for their ability. He made little use of the cabinet, except for Secretary of State Martin Van Buren and Secretary of War John. H. Eaton. Instead, he often sought advice from personal friends, who came to be called his â€Å"kitchen cabinet†. Jackson’s replacement of his incumbent officeholders with his friends and allies gave rise to the term â€Å"spoils system†. Jackson did not originate this practice, however, but merely carried it out on a larger scale than previous Presidents had done. During his eight years as President, Jackson replaced about one- fifth of all federal officeholders.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The first crisis of the new administration was caused by the so- called â€Å"petticoat war†. The wives of other cabinet members snubbed Margaret O’ Neal Eaton, wife of Secretary of war Eaton, because she had reputedly had an affair with Eaton while married to her fist husband and because she was a travernkeeper’s daughter. Jackson, remembering the attacks against his wife, angrily came to Mrs. Eaton’s defense. Cabinet members took sides over the issue, with Van Buren aligning himself with Jackson and Eaton in opposition to Calhoun and his supporters. This led to political conflict that continued until Jackson reorganized the cabinet in 1831. The protective tariff, opposed by the agricultural South, was a major issued during Jackson’s first term. Vice President Calhoun contended that South Carolina should nullify or set aside the tariff of 1828, the Tariff of Abominations, because it violated states’ rights. The South Carolina nullificationists were confident that Jackson, a Southerner, would support them, but he was a moderate on the tariff issue, holding some protection necessary. He also believed nullification would lead to dissolution of the Union. In July, 1838, Congress passed a more moderate tariff bill, but it was still considered oppressive by South Carolina. In November, a state convention declared the law null and void. Jackson reacted by sending a warship and revenue cutters to Charleston, warning that â€Å"Disunion by armed force is treason.’ The crisis was resolved when Henry Clay secured passage of a compromise tariff in 1833. This bill satisfied South Carolina, which then repealed the nullification ordinance. Jackson’s early administration had been marked by intense rivalry between Vice President Calhoun and Secretary of State Van Buren, both of whom hoped to succeed him. As Jackson’s first term ended, it became apparent that Van Buren had the upper hand. Calhoun, at odds with the President on nullification, resigned the Vice Presidency in 1832. Jackson had long disapproved of the Bank of the United States, which he regarded as an agency of monopoly and special privilege. When it was proposed to renew the bank’s charter in 1832, four years before its expiration date, he vetoed the measure. Henry Clay made this veto an issue in the 1832 Presidential campaign. The voters supported Jackson, however, and he defeated Clay by 219 electoral votes to 49 and a popular vote of 687, 502 to 530, 189. Van Buren was Jackson’s running mate on the ticker of the Democratic Party. This was the first election in which all candidates were nominated by national conventions. Second Administration   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Reassured by his heavy election majority in 1832, Jackson indicated early in his second term that the Bank of the United States would no longer be a depository for public funds and ordered them deposited instead in certain state banks called pet banks by Jackson’s enemies. This act eventually destroyed the Bank of the United States, but it also contributed to a financial panic.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In 1835, for the first time in the history of the nation, the national debt was paid off. The government had a surplus of $37,000,000, much of it deposited in the â€Å"pet† banks. The following year Congress voted to divide the federal surplus among the states. The â€Å"pet† banks faced a crisis when the government began to withdraw its funds, leading to the financial and commercial panic of 1837, which occurred after Jackson had left office. Another cause of this panic was Jackson’s Specie Circular of 1836, which ordered that payment for government land be made in gold or silver rather than in paper money. This act was intended to curb land speculation but hurt the Western banks. In foreign relations, Jackson faced few major problems. Relations with Great Britain went smoothly. A long- standing claim against France for damages to American shipping during the Napoleonic Wars caused a crisis in 1835-36 but was settled favorably. Texas won independence from Mexico in 1836, but the United States was not yet involved in its affairs, although Jackson recognized its independence on his last day of office. III. Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Jackson was a few days short of 70 years of age when he left office-the oldest President until Dwight D. Eisenhower. He was more popular when he retired than when he took office as President. Although in ill health, he remained active in party affairs. An opposition party-the Whigshad been formed during his Presidency, and from that point on the two- party system remained in effect. Jackson died on June 8, 1845. References: Latner, R. B. The Presidency of Andrew Jackson (University of Georgia, 1979). Remini, R.V. Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767-1821(Harper Row, 1977). Remini, R.V. Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833- 1845(Harper Row, 1984). Sabin, Louis. Andrew Jackson: Frontier Patriot (Troll, 1985). Schlesinger, A. M. The Age of Jackson (Little, Brown, 1945).

Related Texts Growing Up Essay Example for Free

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Cyclic Voltammetry Principle

Cyclic Voltammetry Principle Cyclic voltammetry is the most widely used technique for acquiring qualitative information about electrochemical reactions [34, 35]. The power of cyclic voltammetry results from its ability to provide considerable information on the thermodynamics and kinetics of heterogeneous electron transfer reactions [47, 48], and coupled chemical reactions [36, 37]. It also provides mathematical analysis of an electron transfer process at an electrode [41, 49, 50]. Basic Principle of Cyclic voltammetry An electron transfer process with a single step may be represented as; O + ne à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ R (2.1) where O and R are oxidized and reduced form of electoractive species respectively, which either is soluble in solution or absorbed on the electrode surface and are transported by diffusion alone. Cyclic voltammetry consists of scanning linearly the potential of a stationary working electrode (in an unstirred solution), using a triangular potential waveform. Depending on the information sought, single or multiple cycles can be used. During the potential sweep, the potentiostat measures the current resulting from the applied potential. The resulting plot of current vs. potential is termed as cyclic voltammogram. The excitation signal in cyclic voltammetry is given in Fig. 2.1a. Initially the potential of the electrode is Ei. Then the potential is swept linearly at the rate of ÃŽÂ ½ volts per second. In cyclic voltammetry reversal technique is carried out by reversing direction of scan after a certain time t =ÃŽÂ » .The potential at any time E (t) is given by E (t) = Ei ÃŽÂ ½t t E (t) = Ei 2ÃŽÂ ½ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ » + ÃŽÂ ½t tà ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ » (2.2b) HereÃŽÂ ½ is scan rate in V/s. The shape of the resulting cyclic voltammogram can be qualitatively explained as follows: When potential is increased from the region where oxidized form O is stable, cathodic current starts to flow as potential approaches E0 for R/O couple until a cathodic peak is reached. After traversing the potential region in which the reduction process takes place, the direction of potential sweep is reversed. The reaction-taking place in the forward scan can be expressed as O + e- à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ R During the reverse scan, R molecule (generated in the forward half cycle, and accumulated near the surface) is reoxidized back to O and anodic peak results. R à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ® O + e- In the forward scan as potential moves past Eo, the near-electrode concentration of O falls to zero, the mass transfer of O reaches a maximum rate, in unstirred solution, this rate then declines as the depletion of O further and further from electrode takes place. Before dropping again current passes through a maximum. Reversal of scan repeats the above sequence of events for the oxidation of electrochemically generated R that now predominates in near-electrode region. The continuous change in the surface concentration is coupled with an expansion of the diffusion layer thickness (as expected in the quiescent solutions). The resulting current peaks thus reflect the continuous change of the concentration gradient with time, hence, the increase to the peak current corresponds to the achievement of diffusion control, while the current drop (beyond the peak) exhibits a t-1/2 dependence (independent of the applied potential). For the above reasons, the reversal current has the same shape as the forward one. Electrochemical Cell Electrochemical cell is a sealed vessel which is designed to prevent the entry of air. It has an inlet and outlet to allow the saturation of solution with an inert gas, N2 or Ar. Removal of O2 is usually necessary to prevent currents due to the reduction of O2 interfering with response from system under study. The standard electrochemical cell consists of three electrodes immersed in an electrolyte; Working electrode (WE) Reference electrode (RE) Counter electrode (CE) Working Electrode (WE) The performance of the voltammetric procedure is strongly influenced by the working electrode material. Since the reaction of interest (reduction or oxidation) takes place on working electrode, it should provide high signal to noise characteristics, as well as a reproducible response. Thus, its selection depends primarily on two factors: the redox behaviour of the target analyte and the background current over the potential region required for the measurement. Other considerations include the potential window, electrical conductivity, surface reproducibility, mechanical properties, cost, availability and toxicity. A range of materials have found application as working electrodes for electroanalysis, the most popular are those involving mercury, carbon or noble metals (particularly platinum and gold). Reference Electrode (RE) This functional electrode has a constant potential so it can be used as reference standard against which potential of other electrode present in the cell can be measured. Commonly used reference electrodes are silver-silver chloride or the calomel electrode. Counter of Auxiliary Electrode (CE) It is also termed as auxiliary electrode and serves as source or sink for electrons so that current can be passed from external circuit through the cell. The potential at WE is monitored and controlled very precisely with respect to RE via potentiostat. This may be controlled in turn via interfacing with a computer. The desired waveform is imposed on the potential at the WE by a waveform generator. The potential drop V is usually measured by the current flowing between the WE and CE across a resistor R (from which (I=V/R), the latter connected in series with the two electrodes. The resulting I/V trace, termed as a voltammogram is then either plotted out via an XY chart recorder or, where possible, retained in a computer to allow any desired data manipulation prior to hard copy being taken. Single Electron Transfer Process Three types of single electron transfer process can be studied. Reversible process Irreversible process Quasi-reversible process Based on values of electrochemical parameters, i.e. peak potential Ep, half peak potential (Ep/2), half wave potential (E1/2), peak current (ip), anodic peak potential Epa, cathodic peak potential Epc etc, it can be ascertained whether a reaction is reversible, irreversible or quasi-reversible. Ep is the potential corresponding to peak current ip, Ep/2 is the potential corresponding to 0.5 ip, E1/2 is the potential corresponding to 0.85 ip. These  electrochemical parameters can be graphically obtained from the voltammogram as shown in the Fig. 2.2. Reversible Process The heterogeneous transfer of electron from an electrode to a reducible species and vice versa O + ne à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ R is a form of Nernstian electrode reaction with assumption that at the surface of electrode, rate of electron transfer is so rapid that a dynamic equilibrium is established and Nernstian condition holds i.e. CO(0,t) à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ CR(0,t) = Exp[(nFà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬ ¢RT)(Ei-ÃŽÂ ½t-Eo)] (2.3) In equation (2.3), Co and CR are concentration of oxidized and reduced species at the surface of electrode as a function of time, Eo is the standard electrode potential, Ei is the initial potential and ÃŽÂ ½ is the scan rate in volts per second. Under these conditions, the oxidized and reduced species involved in an electrode reaction are in equilibrium at the electrode surface and such an electrode reaction is termed as a reversible reaction. Current Expression Due to difference in concentration of electroactive species at the surface of electrode and the concentration in the bulk, diffusion controlled mass transport takes place. Ficks second law can be applied to obtain time dependent concentration distribution in one dimension of expanding diffusion layer. à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ci(x, t) à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡t = Dià ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡2Ci(x, t) à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡x2 (2.4) Peak current is a characteristic quantity in reversible cyclic voltammetric process. The current expression is obtained by solving Ficks law [51]. i = nFACo*(à Ã¢â€š ¬Doa)1/2 à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡(at) (2.5) where i = current, n = number of electrons transferred, A is the area of electrode, Co* is the bulk concentration of oxidized species, Do is the diffusion coefficient, à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ (at) is the current function and a = nFÃŽÂ ½/RT At 298K, function à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡(at) and the current potential curve reaches their maximum for the reduction process at a potential which is 28.5/n mV more negative than the half wave potential i.e. at n(Ep-E1/2) = 28.50 mV, à Ã¢â€š ¬1/2à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡(at) = 0.4463 ( Table 2.1). Then the current expression for the forward potential scan becomes (2.6) where ip is the peak current or maximum current. Using T=298K, Area (A) in cm2, Diffusion coefficient (Do) in cm2/s, concentration of species O (Co*) in moles dm-3 and Scan rate (ÃŽÂ ½) in volts sec-1, equation (2.6) takes the following form, (2.7) Equation (2.7) is called Randles Sevick equation [39, 40]. Diagnostic Criteria of Reversibility Certain well-defined characteristic values can be obtained from the voltammogram, for a reversible electrochemical reaction. Relationship between peak potential (Ep) and half wave potential (E1/2) for a reversible reaction is given by, (2.8a) (2.8b) Where E1/2 is potential corresponding to i = 0.8817ip [41]. At 298 K (2.8c) From equations (2.8a) and (2.8b) one obtains, (2.9a) At 298K (2.9b) The peak voltage position does not alter as scan rate varies. In some cases, the precise determination of peak potential Ep is not easy because the observed CV peak is somewhat broader. So it is sometimes more convenient to report the potential at i = 0.5ip called half peak potential, which can be used for E1/2 determination [52]. (2.10a) At 298 K (2.10b) (2.10c) From equations (2.8a) and (2.10a) we obtain, (2.11a) At 298K (2.11b) The diagnostic criterion of single electron transfer reversible reaction is often sufficient to get qualitative as well as quantitative information about the thermodynamic and kinetic parameters of the system. For a reversible system, should be independent of the scan rate, however, it is found that generally increases with à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ®. This is due to presence of finite solution resistance between the reference and the working electrode. Irreversible Process For a totally irreversible process, reverse reaction of the electrode process does not occur. Actually for this type of reaction the charge transfer rate constant is quite small, i.e. ksh à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ £ 10-5cm sec-1, hence charge transfer is extremely low and current is mainly controlled by the rate of charge transfer reaction. Nernst equation is not applicable for such type of reaction. The process can be best described by the following reaction O + ne à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ® R Delahay [51] and later on Mastuda, Ayabe [48], and Reinmuth [53] described the stationary electrode voltammetric curves of the irreversible process. Irreversibility can be diagnosed by three major criteria. A shift in peak potential occurs as the scan rate varies. Half peak width for an irreversible process is given by (2.12) Here ÃŽÂ ± is transfer coefficient and na is the number of electrons involved in rate determining step of charge transfer process. At 298K (2.13) Current expression is given as, i = nFACo*(à Ã¢â€š ¬Dob)1/2 à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡(bt) (2.14) The function à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡(bt) goes through a maximum at à Ã¢â€š ¬1/2à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡(bt) = 0.4958.(Table 2.2). Introduction of this value in equation (2.14) yields the expression (2.15) for the peak  current. A plot of ln ip vs. (Ep-Eo) for different scan rates would be a straight line with a slope proportional to -à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡naF and an intercept proportional to ks,h. Quasi-reversible Process Quasi-reversible process is termed as a process which shows intermediate behaviour between reversible and irreversible processes. Both charge transfer and mass transfer control current of the reaction. For quasi-reversible process value of standard heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant, ks,h lies between 10-1 to 10-5 cm sec-1[42]. Cyclic voltammogram for quasi-reversible process is shown in Fig. 2.3. An expression relating the current to potential dependent charge transfer rate was first provided by Matsuda and Ayabe [48]. (2.17) where, ksh is the heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant at standard potential Eo of redox system,is the transfer coefficient and à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¢ = 1- à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡. In this case, the shape of the peak and the various peak parameters are functions of à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡ and the dimensionless parameter à ¯Ã‚ Ã…’, defined as [54] (2.18) For quasi-reversible process current value is expressed as a function of. (2.19) where is expressed as (2.20) is shown in Fig. 2.4. It is observed that when à ¯Ã‚ Ã…’ > 10, the behavior approaches that of a reversible system. It is observed that for a quasi-reversible reaction, ip is not proportional to à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ®1/2. For half peak potential we have at 298K (2.21) This implies, These parameters attain limiting values characteristic of reversible or totally irreversible processes as à ¯Ã‚ Ã…’ varies. For à ¯Ã‚ Ã…’ >10, à ¯Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾(à ¯Ã‚ Ã…’,à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡) = 2.2 which gives Ep-Ep/2 = 56.5mV (value characteristic of a reversible wave). For Variation of Ά with Άº and ÃŽÂ ± is shown in Fig. 2.5. For three types of electrode processes Matsuda and Ayabe [48] suggested following zone boundaries. a) Reversible (Nernstian) ΆºÃƒ ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³15; ksh à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³ 0.3 à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦1/2cm s-1 b) Quasi-Reversible 15à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³ Άº à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³ 10-2 (1+ÃŽÂ ±); 0.3 à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦1/2 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³ ksh à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³ 2 10-5 à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦1/2 cm s-1 c) Totally Irreversible Άº Source: Bard, A.J.; Faulkner, L.R. Electrochemical Methods, Fundamentals and Applications, John Wiley, New York, 1980, pp 225. Source: Bard, A.J.; Faulkner, L.R. Electrochemical Methods, Fundamentals and Applications, John Wiley, New York, 1980, pp 227. Multi Electron Transfer Process Multi-electron transfer process usually takes place in two separate steps. Two-steps mechanism, each step characterized by its own electrochemical parameters is called EE mechanism. Stepwise reversible EE mechanism is given by following reaction, A + n1e à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ B (E10) (2.22a) B + n2e à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ C (E20) (2.22b) where, A and B are electroactive species and n1 and n2 are the number of electrons involved in successive steps. If A and B react at sufficiently separated potentials with A more easily reducible than B, the voltammogram for overall reduction of A to C consists of two separated waves. The first wave corresponds to the reduction of A to B with n1 electrons and in this potential range the substance B diffuses into the solution. As potential is scanned towards more cathodic values, a second wave appears which is made up of two superimposed parts. The current related to substance A, which is still diffusing toward electrode increases since this species now is reduced directly to substance C by (n1+n2) electrons. In addition, substance B, which was the product of the first wave, can be reduced in this potential region and a portion of this material diffuses back towards the electrode and reacts. Each heterogeneous electron transfer step is associated with its own electrochemical parameters i.e. ks,hi and ÃŽÂ ±i, where i =1, 2 for the 1st and 2nd electron transfer respectively. Based on the value of à ¯Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Eo, we come across three different types of cases [50] as shown in the Fig. 2.6. Types of Two Electron Transfer Reactions [50] Case 1: Separate Peaks When à ¯Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Eo à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³ -150mV the EE mechanism is termed as disproportionate mechanism [55]. Cyclic voltammogram consists of two typical one-electron reduction waves. The heterogeneous electron transfer reaction may simultaneously be accompanied by homogenous electron transfer reactions, which in multi-electron system leads to disproportionation. Each disproportionation reaction can be described as, 2R1 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ O+ R2 (2.23) The equilibrium constant K (disproportionation constant) is given by (2.24) It can be derived from the difference between the standard potentials using (2.25) Case 2: In this case, the individual waves merge into one broad distorted wave whose peak height and shape are no longer characteristics of a reversible wave. The wave is broadened similar to an irreversible wave, but can be distinguished from the irreversible voltammogram, in that the distorted wave does not shift on the potential axis as a function of the scan rate. Case 3: = 0mV Single peak In this case, in cyclic voltammogram, only a single wave would appear with peak current intermediate between those of a single step one electron and two electron transfer reactions and Ep-Ep/2 = 21 mV. Case 4: E1o If the energy required for the first second electron transfer is less than that for the first, one wave is observed having peak height equal to 23/2 times that of a single electron transfer process. In this case, Ep E1/2 = 14.25 mV. The effective E0 for the composite two electron wave is given by [50]. Source: Polcyn, D.S.; Shain, I. J. Anal. Chem. 1966, 38, 370. Cyclic Voltammetric Methods for the Determination of Heterogeneous Electron Transfer Rate Constant Cyclic voltammetry provides a systematic approach to solution of diffusion problems and determination of different kinetic parameters including ks,h. Various methods are reported in literature to determine heterogeneous rate constants. Nicholson [41, 42], Gileadi [56] and Kochi [37] developed different equations to calculate heterogeneous electron transfer rate constants. Nicholsons Method [41, 42] Nicholson derived an expression for determination of heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant ksh. This method is based on correlation between and ks,h through a dimensionless parameter by following equation, (2.26) where is scan rate. for different values of ΆEp can be obtained from the Table 2.3. Hence, if ΆEp (Epa-Epc) is determined from the voltammogram, can be known from Table 2.3. From the knowledge of, , ksh can be calculated using equation (2.27). If D o= DR then ÃŽÂ ³=1 (2.27) This method is applied for voltammograms having peak separation in the range of 57mV to 250mV, and between this range, the electrode process progresses from reversible to irreversible. With increasing scan rate, the peak separation and hence à Ã‹â€  decreases. It can be seen from the Table 2.3, that for reversible reactions i.e. for the current voltage curves and is independent of . For totally irreversible reaction i.e. for the back reaction becomes unimportant, anodic peak and is not observed. For quasi-reaction i.e. for 0. 001 Separation of cathodic and anodic peak potential as a function of the kinetic parameter à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¹ in the cyclic voltammogram at room temperature. Kochis Method Kochi and Klinger [37] formulated another correlation between the rate constant for heterogeneous electron transfer and peak separation. The expression for ksh given by Kochi was (2.28) The standard rate constant ksh can be calculated from the difference of peak potentials and the sweep rates directly. This equation applies only to sweep rates which are large enough to induce electrode irreversibility. The relation derived by Kochi is based on following expressions derived by Nicholson and Shain [41]. (2.29a) (2.29b) where ÃŽÂ ² = 1-ÃŽÂ ± , and à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ is the scan rate. Equations (2.29a) and (2.29b) yield (2.30) This expression is used for the determination of the transfer coefficient. Assuming that (for reversible reaction). We have, (2.31) Gileadis Method Gileadi [56] formulated a more sophisticated method for the determination of heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant, ks,h, using the idea of critical scan rate, c. This method can be used in the case where anodic peak is not observed. When reversible heterogeneous electron transfer process is studied at increasing scan rates, peak potential values also vary and process progresses towards irreversible. If are plotted against the logarithm of scan rates, a straight line at low scan rates and ascending curve at higher scan rate is obtained. Extrapolation of both curves intersects them at a point known as toe. This toe corresponds to the logarithm of critical scan rate, c. as shown in Fig. 2.7. Hence critical scan rate can be calculated experimentally. ks,h can be calculated as, (2.32) where à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦c is the critical scan rate, ÃŽÂ ± is a dimensionless parameter, called transfer coefficient and Do is the diffusion coefficient. Coupled Chemical Reactions Although charge transfer processes are an important part of entire spectrum of chemical reactions, they seldom occur as isolated elementary steps. Electron transfer reactions coupled with new bond formation or bond breaking steps are very frequent. The occurrence of such chemical reactions, which directly affect the available surface concentration of the electroactive species, is common to redox processes of many important organic and inorganic compounds. Changes in the shape of the cyclic voltammogram resulting from the chemical competition for the electrochemical reactant  or product, can be extremely useful for elucidating the reaction pathways and for providing reliable chemical information about reactive intermediates [35]. It is convenient to classify the different possible reaction schemes in which homogeneous reactions are associated with the heterogeneous electrons transfer steps by using letters to signify the nature of the step. E represents an electron transfer at the electrode surface, and C represents a homogenous chemical reaction. While O and R indicate oxidized and reduced forms of the electroactive species, other non electroactive species which result from the coupled chemical complication are indicated by W, Y, Z, etc [57]. The order of C with respect to E then follows the chronological order in which the two events occur [58]. So according to sequence of step, the systems are classified as EC, ECE, CE etc. These reactions are further classified on basis of reversibility. For example, subclasses of EC reactions can be distinguished depending on whether the reactions are reversible (r), quasi-reversible (q), or irreversible (i), for example Er Cr, ErCi, EqCi, etc. Two Steps Coupled Chemical Reactions In two steps reactions, a variety of possibilities exist, which include chemical reactions following or preceding a reversible or an irreversible electron transfer [59, 60, 61, 62]. The chemical reactions themselves may be reversible or irreversible. a) Preceding Chemical Reactions (CE) In a preceding chemical reaction, the species O is the product resulting from a chemical reaction. Such a reaction influences the amount of O to be reduced so forward peak is perturbed. For a preceding chemical reaction, two mechanisms are possible, depending on whether the electron transfer is reversible CrEr or irreversible CrEi [58]. Reversible Electrode Process Preceded by a Reversible Chemical Reaction (CrEr Reaction) The process in which a homogeneous chemical reaction precedes a reversible electron transfer is schematized as follows: (2.33) where Y represents the non electroactive species and O and R are the electroactive congeners. Since the supply of electroactive species O results from the chemical reaction, it is important to know that how much of O is formed during the time scale of cyclic voltammogram. In this connection, it must be noted that the time scale of voltammetry is measured by the parameter a = nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT for a reversible process and b = ÃŽÂ ±naFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT for a quasi reversible or an irreversible process It means that the time scale of cyclic voltammetry is a function of the scan rate, in the sense that higher the scan rate, the higher is the competition of the voltammetric intervention with respect to the rate of chemical complication. The limit at which the chemical complication can proceed is governed either by the equilibrium constant K or the kinetics of the homogeneous reaction (l = kf+kr). In this regard, it is convenient to distinguish three limiting cases depending on the rate of chemical complication [41]. Slow preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr When K is large (i.e. K > 20) most of O will already be present in solution, the response is apparently not disturbed by the latter, i.e. it appears as a simple reversible electron transfer. When K is small, the small electron transfer again appears as a simple reversible process except that the peak current will be smaller than is expected on the basis of quantity of Y in the solution. This results because the concentration of the electroactive species CO, being determined by the equilibrium of the preceding reaction is equal to a fraction of species Y placed in the solution. where C* = CO (x,0) +CY(x,0) Fast preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr >> nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT) When K is large, once again the response appears as a simple reversible electron transfer, but the measured standard potential Eo/* is shifted toward more negative values compared to the standard potential Eo/ of the couple O/ R by a factor of . When K is small, because of the fast continuous maintaining of the small equilibrium amount of O, the complete depletion of O at the electrode surface will never be reached, so that the forward profile no longer maintains the peak shape form, rather assumes a sigmoidal S-shaped curve, the height of which remains constant at all scan rates. Intermediate preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr = nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT) In this case, the kinetics can be studied using the ratio between the kinetic and the diffusive currents according to the relationship (2.34) Irreversible Electrode Process Preceded by a Reversible Chemical Reaction (CrEi Reaction) This process is schematizes as. (2.35) In this case, not only the thermodynamic K (kf / kr) and kinetic (kf + kr) parameters of preceding chemical reaction but also the kinetic parameters of the electron transfer (ÃŽÂ ±, k0) play a role. Obviously the lack of reverse peak is immediately apparent, due to the irreversibility of the charge transfer. The curves are also more drawn out because of the electron transfer coefficient, ÃŽÂ ±. Slow preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr In this case, the process appears as a simple irreversible electron transfer. The peak height of the process depends on the equilibrium constant because, as mentioned in the previous case, the concentration of the active species CO is a fraction of the amount C* put in the solution: Fast preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr >> nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT) If instead the reaction kinetics is fast, there are two possibilities: If K is large, again the response appears as if the preceding chemical reaction would be absent. However, the peak potential is shifted towards more negative values than those that would be recorded in the absence of the chemical complication by a factor equal to . If K is small, as in the preceding case, an easily recognizable S-like curve voltammogram is obtained having a limiting current independent from the scan rate (2.36) Intermediate preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr = nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT) Here again, the kinetics can be studied using the ratio between the kinetic and diffusive currents according to the relationship (2.37) b) Following Chemical Reactions (EC) The process in which the primary product of an electron transfer becomes involved in a chemical reaction is indicated by EC mechanism. It can be represented by O + ne à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ R R à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ Z (2.38) where O and R are the electroactive congeners and Z represents the non electroactive species. Several situations are possible depending on the extent of electrochemical reversibility of the electron transfer and on the reversibility or irreversibility of the chemical reaction following the electron transfer. As a general criterion, in cyclic voltammetry, the presence of a following reaction has little influence on the forward peak, whereas it has a considerable effect on the reverse peak. Reversible Electrode Process Followed by a Reversible Chemical Reaction (ErCr Reaction) ErCr mechanism can be written as (2.39) Once again the voltammetric response will differ to a greater or lesser extent with respect to a simple electron transfer depending on the values of either the equilibrium constant, K, or the kinetics of the chemical complication (kf+kr) [58]. Analogously to that discussed for preceding equilibrium reactions, three limiting cases can be distinguished. Slow following chemical reaction (kf+kr If the rate of chemical reaction is low, it has a little effect on the process, thus reducing it a simple reversible electron transfer. Fast following chemical reaction (kf+kr >> nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT) If the rate of the chemical complication is high, the system will always be in equilibrium and the voltammogram will apparently look like a non complicated reversible electron transfer. However, as a consequence of the continual partial removal of the species R from the electrode surface, the reduction occurs at potential values less negative than that of a simple electron transfer by an amount of . Due to the fast kinetics of the chemical complication, the potential will remain at this value regardless of the scan rate. Intermediate following chemical reaction (kf+kr=nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT) If the kinetics of the chemical reaction are intermediate with the scan rate the response gradually shifts from previous value for a fast chemical reaction [which was more anodic by w.r.t. to value of the couple O/R] towards the Eo/ value assuming more and more the values predicted by the relationship (2.40) In other words, the response (which for the fast kinetics is more anodic compared to E0/) due to the competitive effects of the potential scan rate moves towards more cathodic values by 30/n (mV) for every ten fold increase in the scan rate. However, it is noted that at the same time, the reversible peak tends to disappear, in that on increasing the scan rate, the species Z does not have time to restore R. This is demonstrated by the current ratio which is about one at low scan rates, but it tends to zero at high scan rates. Reversible Electrode Process Followed by an Irreversible Chemical R

Roman Fever :: essays research papers

Last Word When it comes to the art of conversation men and women employ different strategies when carrying on same sex conversations. In the short story â€Å"Roman Fever† by Edith Wharton, the two main characters appear to be having a battle of wits. While on holiday in Rome two people become reacquainted with each other. Both parties have lost their spouse. The dialogue opens with one speaker making light conversation. This person is simply making nonchalant statements, possibly seeking a reply with a mutual agreement about the topic. Instead the second person replies back with an implied personal ending to the statement taking the control away from the first speaker. This causes the first speaker to reflect for a moment. Well executed, the second person has once again politely changed the subject to avoid a confrontation. In the company of each other, silence is a device they both use. One uses it for opportunistic reasons, the other to conceal. When the conversation starts again it seems as if the couple is carefully setting the stage for a mental battle of, who can out do who, the classiest. This is where the genders split as to how they deal with conflict. Usually two civilized gentlemen engaged in a conversation that involves intimacy tend to keep those personal emotions to themselves. If directly asked such a question the other gentleman would probably state that he chooses not to discuss it. If men do not want to talk about a subject that involves emotions they come right out and say, â€Å"I don’t want to talk about this and that’s final†. Respecting the other man’s statement, no further discussions involving that topic would take place. As far as a strategy for control of conversation, men are not inclined to be evasive with each other. They get right to the point without a lot of chit-chat in between. Men do not try to confuse one another with inferences or misleading statements, to them it would be illogical. With reference to the two women in â€Å"Roman Nights† Mrs. Slade and Mrs. Ansley literally battle each other in the most feminine of ways, through words. Mrs. Slade admits to her friend that Delphin did not write the letter, she did. This emotionally crushes Mrs. Ansley. Now that the topic is finally out in the open the two women prepare for a game of wits. After the first round of surprises Mrs.