Effectiveness of Para-Transit Transport Services

Effectiveness of Para-Transit Transport Services THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PARA-TRANSIT TRANSPORT SERVICES IN NIGERIAN TOWNS: THE CASE OF MOTORCYCLE TRANSPORT IN ABRAKA ATUBI, AUGUSTUS 0. ABSTRACT The thrust of this article is on the desirability of motorcycles in Abraka region as a means of para-transit transportation. The paper examines the existing mode of para-transportation in Abraka region, and discovers that commuters in Abraka region are increasingly patronizing motorcycles as a mode of transport. Also, with the poor conditions of roads in Abraka, most parts of Abraka are denied access to public transport services. In the light of this, a vast number of commuters have now resorted to the services of motorcycle transport in spite of the social risks and incessant cases of accidents associated with this mode of transport. This study discovers through Pearson’s Product Moment correlation coefficient analysis that there is a high significant relationship between the standard of living of cyclists and motorcycle business in the study area. The paper ends by highlighting issues, which should be incorporated in a comprehensive urban transport policy to make motorcycle transport safe and efficient as a para-transit mode of transport in Abraka region. INTRODUCTION The need for an efficient public transport service to cater for the demands of urban commuters cannot be overstressed. Public transport systems are more efficient means of transporting large numbers of people between and within settlements than private cars (Adeniji, 1983). In contemporary transportation lexicon, two major types of public transport systems are defined. These are the conventional public transport system and the para-transit or intermediate systems of public transport. The para-transit or intermediate systems are so called because they include all systems of urban transport, between the private car on the one hand of the scale and the conventional public transport system on the other (Adeniji, 1983). Para-transit modes of transport in developed countries include such systems as car pools, rental cars, specialized commuter bus services provided on a subscription basis, as well as taxi cab related services like dial-a-bus and motorcycles. In the less developed countries, para-transit modes are usually referred to as intermediate modes of public transport. They include the shared taxi cab, mini buses, modified vehicles such as the jeepneys of Manila in the Philippines (Grava, 1977), silos of Chien Mai in Thailand (Fourcare and Manundes, 1977), Molue of Lagos in Nigeria (Olayemi, 1979), Beenos of Surabaya in Indonesia (Fouracre and Manuder, 1978), the cycle rickshaws community found in most Asian cities (Jacob and Fouracre, 1976) and â€Å"Going† in Nigerian Towns, (Okoko, 1990). In recent years, the prohibitive prices of brand new cars and buses have resulted in the reduction of the number of private cars and commercial vehicles generally on our urban roads. Even the fairly used imported cars and buses (Tukunbo) are beyond the reach of the majority of our people. As a result of these factors, there has been a tremendous demand for public transport in our towns in recent years. It is now a common sight to see hundreds of passengers at bus stations or along road sides waiting for hours for the few buses and taxis on the road (Okoko, 1998), This scenario has necessitated the introduction of motorcycles as a means of para-transit transport in Nigeria towns. It first gained prominence in the Cross River State the l970s where it was variously referred to as â€Å"Aka-Uke† or â€Å"Ala-Olok†. This mode has now diffused to other Nigeria towns including Lagos and Abuja. It is now the dominant mode of transport in most of our urban centres e.g. Uyo Calabar, Nasarawa etc. It is variously referred to â€Å"Okada† in the Mid-West belt regions of Nigeria and â€Å"Abacha† in Northern Nigeria. The motorcycle mode has had the advantage of flexibility and door-to-door service especially in towns where the road network does not permit an efficient operation of taxi service. The major problem associated with it is the high number of accident cases often resulting in the death of both the cyclist and the passenger or commuter. Table 1, shows some para-transit modes and their relative performance characteristics. Most of these modes are very popular in Asian and Latin American countries where they are employed both in rural and urban areas. These modes are recommended for use in our towns and rural areas where conventional mass transit facilities are inadequate. In rural areas where the population is less than 50,000, privately operated para-transit modes are adequate. In settlements where the population is between 50,000-100,000 para-transit and privately operated omnibuses are adequate. Mass transit public transport services are recommended for settlements with a population size of over 100,000 inhabitants (Adeniji, 1986). In recent years, with the aid of motorcycling, Abraka community has experienced an unprecedented general economic boom, which has encouraged the increased diversification of local industries and commercial activities. Atubi and Onokala (2004b) stated that â€Å"in human geography, one of the most fundamental themes is spatial interaction. That spatial interaction involves the movement of goods and services and people between various centres in space. In general, when constructing or improving a road network where economic constraints apply, they said, the most economical solution for one road link may not necessarily be the best solution for the network as a whole. That the cost of implementing one project to high standards may consume resources that would be better spent over the whole network, or in filling other gaps in the network with lower standard roads†. The influence of political policies on the transport facilities in metropolitan Lagos was also examined by Sada (1970) where he maintained that politics had more than desired influence on the city network and this is irrational to objective planning of transport network in such a large city. He further said that until the city was given a new dimension such as planning and reversing same existing policies, the problems of traffic in Lagos would still continue to be in existence. Furthermore, for any meaningful division of labour and specialization in production process to take place in any society such as Abraka, there must be an efficient and effective means of transport (Atubi and Onokala, 2004a). The various feeder roads and paths are constructed to connect the interior parts of the region and this gives room or serve as an advantage to motorcycle transport system in Abraka region. METHODOLOGY Data for this article were collected through questionnaire survey in Abraka region. Questionnaires were administered randomly/systematically on respondents. This article specially aims at examining the influence of motorcycle transportation with emphasis on employment opportunities of respondents. For the purpose of achieving the aim eighty (80) questionnaires were administered. For effective administration of the questionnaires the region was subdivided into three (3) regions or zones Viz: Ekrejeta Road, Kwale Road and Abraka-urban Road. The statistical techniques employed include means and percentages as well as the Pearson’s Product Movement Correlation Coefficient (P.P.M .C.C.) THE RESEARCH FINDINGS Table 1: Basic Para-Transit Modes and their Performance Characteristics Source: Howe, J (1983) Conceptual Framework for Defining and Evaluating Improvements for Local Level Rural Transport in Developing Countries (Geneva, H. 0.) Dept. 1983, Pp. 3 7-39. Table 2: Importance of Motorcycle Transportation Alternatives Response Percentage (%) Yes No 77 3 96 4 Total 80 100 Source: Field Survey, 2004. From the table above, it was clearly shown that the importance of motorcycle as a mode of transportation in Abraka region cannot be over-emphasized. It is observed that 96% of the respondents are of the view that motorcycle transportation has played an important role in Abraka region while only 4% disagreed. Also, the movement of people, goods and information are being facilitated via motorcycle transport. Table 3: Ownership of Motorcycle Alternatives Response Percentage (%) Yes (My own) No (Hired) 29 51 36 64 Total 80 100 Source: Field Survey, 2004. Sixty-four percent (64%) of the respondents agreed that most of the motorcycles in use in Abraka community for transport purposes are hired and thirty-six (3 6%) are of the view that the motorcycle used in Abraka are privately owned. Therefore, the lot of motorcycles in Abraka region are hired meaning that the users (cyclists) are operating on a â€Å"balance and take† basis. That is the motorcyclist pays the owner of the machine certain amount of money depending on the terms of agreement after which the machine becomes that of the cyclist. Table 4: Monthly Income Through Motorcycling Amount Response Percentage (%) Below N2,000 N2,000- N4,000 N4,000-N6000 N6,000- N8,000 Above N8,000 23 24 12 8 13 29 30 15 10 16 Total 80 100 Source: Field Survey, 2004. It could be deduced from the above table that the majority of the cyclists earn between N2,000 and N4,000 monthly. This is followed by those cyclists that earn below N2,000 per month. From the table 30% and 29% earn between N2,000 and N4,000 and below N2,000 monthly respectively. Table 5: Time of Operation/Service Time Response Percentage (%) Below 10 a.m 10a.m-4p.m. 4p.m-7p.m. Above7p.m. Always 23 17 19 11 9 29 21 24 14 11 Total 80 100 Source: Field Survey, 2004. The table above shows that the time of operation is mostly in the morning between 10.00 a.m. and reduces until the evening from 4.00 p.m. to 7.00 p.m. The peak hour of operation being in the morning and evening in Abraka region could be as a result of people going to their various places of work and their return back home. These periods have the highest percentages of 30 and 24 respectively. Following the peak hours are the hours betweens 10.00 a.m. and 4.00 p.m. with a percentage rate of2l. This could be because of parents going on â€Å"school run†. Table 6: Fare/Charge Per-Distance Alternatives Response Percentage (%) Yes No 41 39 51 49 Total 80 100 Source: Field Survey, 2004. The responses from the table above means that the fare per distance is likely determined by the passenger and the cyclist, 51% of the respondents agreed that the charge per distance during operation is constant while 49% disagreed. Meaning that, the charge varies with distance. This could be as a result of the operation hour because the fare at night or during bad weather (rainfall) and even during period of fuel scarcity fare tends to vary with distances. During such period, it is the bargaining power between the passenger and the cyclist that determined the fare. Nevertheless, the charge within Abraka region is relatively constant. Table 7: Standard of living through income Received and Motorcycling (observed Frequency) Alternatives Ekrejeka Rd. Kwale Road Abraka-Urban Road total Strongly Agreed Agreed Partially agreed Disagreed 17 2 7 1 12 4 9 1 19 1 5 2 48 7 21 4 Total 27 26 27 80 Source: Field survey, 2004, From table 7 above, the calculated value of the correlation coefficient is 0.90 approximately (see table 9). It could be deduced therefore, that as income increases through motorcycling, the standard of living of the cyclists also increases at 0.05 level of significance. Table 8: Increase in Motorcycle and the population of Abraka Region Alternatives Ekrejeka Rd. Kwale Road Abraka-Urban Road total Strongly Agreed Agreed Partially agreed Disagreed 2 7 5 13 3 6 3 14 1 1 0 25 6 14 8 52 Total 27 26 27 80 Source: Field survey, 2004. From the calculated values in table 8, (see table 9), the calculated value of the data using the Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient is approximately 0.89. From table 9, it also implies that 20.79% of the population of Abraka can be explained by increase in motorcycle activities while 79.2 1% cannot be attributed to increase in motorcycle activities which could be due to other reasons. Table 9: A correlation Table of Population and Motorcycle increase in Abraka Region Table 10: Provision of Employment Opportunity and Motorcycle Transportation Source: Computed from Table 8, 2004 The calculated value derived from table 10 above using the Pearson’s Product Movement Correlation Coefficient is appropriately 0.86 (see table 11). Also, 26.04% of the employment opportunity can be explained by motorcycle transport in Abraka region while 73.96% cannot be explained and may be due to other factors. Table 11:. Provision of Employment Opportunity and Motorcycle Transportation From table 11, there was a high and positive correlation between employment opportunity and motorcycle transportation in Abraka region. From this brief and simple analysis, the fact that motorcycle transportation has a role to play in the employment of youths in the study area is incontestable. ISSUES FOR POLICY FORMULATION The time has come for us to accept the indispensability of motorcycle transport in Abraka region. The availability of a comprehensive and up-to-date information on vehicle population in the country makes it difficult to have an accurate car ownership ratio per capita for the country. Recent phenomenal increases in the prices of imported cars, both brand new ones and fairly used cars otherwise known as â€Å"tokunbo†, have made it difficult for the average Nigerian to own a car. Even motorcycles and bicycles are now priced out of the reach of the middle and low income households in the country (Adeniji, 1986). In the light of the poor economic situation in the country, there is need for the government to give an official recognition to the operation of motorcycle transport in Nigeria. The operation of motorcyclists should be streamlined such that it should not be a case of any body just picking up his motorcycle and going into business. Just like the National Road Transport Workers Union that monitors the operation of taxis and buses, a similar body should also be set up to oversee the operation of motorcyclists. Every motorcyclist should be made to register with this body before he is allowed to operate. This body should issue identity cards and uniforms for easy identification by commuters. In addition to this, the procedure for the issuance of driving licenses should be reviewed. Every motorcyclist should have either a license or a permit before he is allowed to operate the motorcycle. The Government should reconsider the idea of introducing crash-helmets for the use of both the cyclist and the passenger. The importance of crash-helmets cannot be over-emphasized s they protect the head from severe injury whenever accidents occur. Urban roads should from now henceforth be designed to accommodate cycle-ways. This will reduce cut throat competition for urban road space by cyclists, motorists and pedestrians thereby reducing the rate of accidents on our roads. Existing traffic bye-laws and regulations should be reviewed to accommodate the motorcycle mode and conscious efforts should be made to ensure their enforcement. CONCLUSION Transport of any kind is concomitant and a prerequisite to the development of any modem society. It is indispensable in the economy of any society hence it has increased the socio-economic development of Abraka region. This research has revealed that motorcycle business has a significant effect in the provision of employment, increase in the standard of living of the cyclists and a corresponding increase in the population of Abraka region. REFERENCES Adeniji, K. (1983): â€Å"Urban Development and Public Transport in Nigeria† Third World Planning Review, Vol.5, No.4, Pp. 383-394. Adeniji, K. (1986) â€Å"Public Transportation in Nigeria: where do we go from here?† Paper delivered at the NISER Seminar Series, University of Ibadan, Nigeria, Pp. 1-22. Atubi, A.O. and Onokala, P.C. (2004a) â€Å"Road Transportation and the Socio-Economic Development of the Niger Delta: A case study of Warn Metropolis†. Journal of Social and Management Sciences Review Vol. 1, No. 1, Pp. 102-113. Atubi, A.O. and Onokala, P.C. (2004b) â€Å"The Accessibility of Centres to the Road Networks: The Case of Lagos Island, Lagos, Nigeria†. International Journal of Ecology and Environmental Dynamics, Vol. 2, Pp. 140-15 1. Fouracre, P.R. and Maunder, D.A.C. (1977): â€Å"Public Transport in Cheng Mai, Thailand† Crowthorne, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Supplementary Report 285. Fouracre, P.R. and Maunder, D.A.C. (1978) â€Å"Public Transport in Swiabaya, Indonasia† Crawthorne, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Supplementary Report 370. Grava, S. (1977): â€Å"The Jeepneys of Manila† Traffic Quartet, Vol. 26,No. 4, Pp.465-483. Jacobs, G.D. and Fouracre, P.R. (1976) Further research on road accident rates in developing countries. TRRL complementary Report27O. Crowthorne Okoko, F. (1990) â€Å"For an Effective â€Å"Going System†. The Standard Newspaper, Jos, Nigeria. Wed. July 25, p. 9 Okoko, F. (1998) â€Å"The Demand For Para-Transit Transport Services in Nigerian Towns: The case of Motorcycle Transport in Akure. Journal of Transport Studies, Vol.2, No. 1 Olami, O.A. (1979): â€Å"Intra-city Personal Travel in Metropolitan Lagos† Ibadan, NISER, University of Ibadan, Reprinted Series Number.1 11 Sada, P.O. (1970): â€Å"Political Policies and the Development of Transportation in Metropolitan Lagos. Nigerian Geographical Journal Vol. 13, No.2.

The Effects of Memory Improvement by Saying Words Aloud

This experiment proposes to study the effects of memory improvement by reciting and saying the words out loud to oneself. Participants will be assigned to either two different types of conditions and will then be required to recall the information of words as best as they can. It is assumed that a higher level of generating the targeted words into memory is improved when readers say the words out loud to themselves. Thus, the hypothesis concluded is that people who say words out loud after reading them are expected to improve their memory in retaining information.The Effects of Memory Improvement by Saying Words Aloud Whenever a person thinks, sees or hear words that are needed later on for remembrance, most of us would automatically try to retain the information by methods of imagery, recitation and elaboration to bring it more meaning in their understanding of the definition of those words. Words and languages are interrelatedly connected and associated with memory. Historically, m emory is a complex system which began in primitive organisms that stores an assorted array of fragments that grows more indispensable as we advance through the years.In terms of retaining memory, humans have extraordinary abilities to accumulate a huge amount of knowledge, but they do not always be able to retrieve or gain access to the parts that have since long been forgotten. Since words serve as a medium to communicate and interact with other people, it is a natural part of daily life that people will say certain words out loud in order to effectively convey particular messages or to recall specific information. According to Macleod et al. 2010), saying a word out loud or at least mouthing it, improves memory function by increasing its distinctiveness, i. e. making it unusual compared to others. The fact that producing a word aloud, which is relative to simply reading a word silently, improves explicit memory (Hourihan & MacLeod, 2010). The past studies done on the effects o f mouthing or vocalizing words to an extent of memory recall often yield consistently similar results in which those who have recited the information out loud were being reinforced to maintain that information for a longer term.Physically moving or acting out the words by means of vocalization would involve certain electrical muscle movement so that information sent to the brain are known to increase mental response, thus it has its relativity on the ‘generation effect’. This generation effect refers to an enhanced memory encoding by which a participant has better memory improvement by being involved in its creation or by acting it out. By vocalizing â€Å"out loud†, recitation in past research by Foley et al. (1983) as cited in Dodson & Schacter (2001) had participants to hear and say words out loud.Reciting words out loud would naturally be one of the most effective method for review because it employs more of the senses than any other review technique (ima gery, auditory). For instance, in Schacter et al. ’s (1999) study, when students were reviewing notes or tests immediately after class by means of vocal recitation, they yielded higher scores in memory improvement because not only will they be consolidating the new information, but also it strengthens the neural traces made to the brain. It ‘provides a basis for employing a distinctiveness heuristic during the test. (Dodson & Schacter, 2001). Reciting words out loud to understand the message conveyed by a sentence or paragraph would only then have a higher chance of that information moving on into the long-term memory, as most verbal information goes first in the short-term memory. When information is rehearsed aloud, part of it goes into our long-term memory. The most recent research done by Hourihan & MacLeod (2010) found that reading words aloud during study explicitly improves memory compared to reading a word silently and this is called ‘the productio n effect’.The researches hold that the production effect is that by saying words aloud would make them distinctive and better recognized than words which are read silently, which will be easier to forget. This distinctiveness is not available for the words read silently (Hourihan & MacLeod, 2010). The production effect has its basis on the generation effect whereby reciting words out loud produce a certain distinctiveness as done by a series of experiments by Macleod et al. , (2008).Moreover, a study done by Strain, Patterson & Seidenberg, (1995) as cited in McKay et al. (2008) found that words containing high imageability (e. g. house, chair, elephant) are proposed to have stronger representations in semantic memory. However, past researches found contrasting results compared to Hourihan & MacLeod’s. Research done by Maisto et al. (1977) as cited in Mohindra & Wilding (1980) in a free recall tests found that saying each word out loud three times had im paired their memory performance when subjected to expected recall.This study is further supported by Folkard & Monk (1979) as cited in Mohindra & Wilding (1980) where they suggested that articulating words impaired free recall. In view of these findings which yielded contrasting or relatively different results in relation to vocalizing words out loud, it can be explained that participants were using a strategic reading process when reading the words aloud, since it does not normally involve the conscious recall of information (MacLeod & Masson, 2000) as cited in McKay et al. 2008). There is also a claim that a potential issue in difference of these researchers’ results could be in the time criterion whereby participants shift the influence of certain words to a different semantic pathway (Strain et al. , 1995, as cited in McKay et al. , 2008). However, recent research done by Reynolds & Besner (2008) suggests that contrary to the view that by vocalizing words out loud is entirely an automatic memory encoding, it in fact requires some form of attention.Previous research was investigated further where participants were exposed to reading lexicon and pseudo homophones aloud that required the use of central attention. In research done by Blais & Besner (2007), repetition of words of lexical representations suggests longer persistence in the early memory processing, as cited by Reynolds & Malley (2008). It was discussed earlier that possibly the mere action of vocalizing words for memory recall will encourage memory improvement at a higher level, thus making a person to be able to better retrieve previous information if need be (Macleod et al. 2010). In another study, Kappel, Harfard, Burns & Anderson, (1973) gave another possible explanation on the advantage of reading words out loud, indicating that serial voiced recall were found to be superior for the later positions, and these results replicates previous experiments done by M urray (1966) and Conrad & Hull (1968). However, Kappel et al. , (1973) proposed that the results reported suggest that differences in participants’ level of processing information to memory between saying out loud and reading silently.Similar to the researches done by Macleod and Hourihan (2010), our proposed study focuses in determining whether reading and saying words out loud would have an effect on people’s memory improvement and recall when acquiring new information. The hypothesis of our proposed experiment is that adults, who vocalize new information aloud is expected to have higher memory improvement and better recall of information, thus have the highest number of correct answers in the test as indication of their reading the story out loud during the experiment.Based on past researches, I am taking the side with the assumption that saying words aloud can aid in memory improvement to gather information during other reviewing or learning new knowledge, as s uch an act would require a certain amount of cognitive effort, thus enabling adults to improve their memory technique on learning tasks at hand. Methods Participants As many as 200 participants from schools and offices will be recruited in this study. All participants will include both English speaking males and females and should be between the ages of 18 to 30 years old.All participants will be divided into two categories, each receiving a story in the English language of an average English proficiency level. It should be estimated that the total number of males and females selected are approximately equal in number. The participants will not engage in any other experiments beforehand. Design In this experiment, we will be using a 1 (memory improvement or performance) x 2 (participants recite the story out loud or does not recite the story out loud) independent design. The first independent variable (IV) is the participants’ memory improvement and their ability to remember certain information in the story.For this proposed experiment, the operational definition of reciting the story out loud is where a participant vocally recites aloud a story as they read and comprehend the story at the same time. The dependent variable (DV) is the vocal recitation of the story either the participants read it out loud, or to just read the story silently. Materials The materials to be used in this experiment include administrative letters sent out to the participants informing them of the research and what is expected of them.Procedural materials include the sheets of paper containing the story, test papers with 30 fill-in-the-blank questions, experimenters’ scripts and a stopwatch to keep track of time. The sheets of paper which contains the story to be later recalled by the participants will be a short story that is in English and contains approximately 1000 words. It is entirely fictional and unique, therefore it is not in any way affiliated to share any res emblance or similarities to stories the participants would have known in the past i. e. fairytales or well-known childhood stories.Thus, we expect the participants to be reading and learning about new information based on the fictional story given. This is done so as to reduce any extraneous variables that may interfere with the results of the experiment. The test papers consist of 30 fill-in-the-blank questions that require the participants to answer by recalling information based on the story provided. This format is chosen to avoid any possibility that participants may get the correct answer by chance of lucky guesses. The experimenters’ scripts will contain the standard instructions for the experimenters to read out to the participants when conducting the experiment.Procedure Participants will be randomly assigned to 1 of 2 rooms. In each of the rooms, it is expected to have approximately similar ratio of male and female participants so as to avoid gender directed outcome s and to maintain neutrality. Participants will be led into the room by the experimenter and be asked to take a seat. They will then be briefed on the experiment and will be required to sign two consent forms, one of which is to be kept for themselves and the other, for the research copy of the experimenter.In Room 1, each participant will be provided with a sheet of paper containing the fictional story to be read out loud by the participants. The following instructions will be read out to them: â€Å"You are required to read the fictional story provided out loud. You are highly encouraged to vocalize your words aloud at your own pace. † In Room 2, each participant will be provided with a sheet of paper containing the fictional story. The instructions read will be as follows: â€Å"You are required to read the fictional story given silently. You are not allowed to vocalize your words by reading the story out loud.You will read the story silently at your own pace. † The experiment will take 25 minutes for the participants to take time to read the story. After they read the story, each participant will be given a surprise fill-in-the-blanks test. The test consists of 30 questions relating to the fictional short story that they had to read earlier. Participants will be given 20 minutes to answer the set of questions. Their answer sheets will then be collected and the participants will be thanked for participating in the research. Statistical AnalysisThis experiment will use an independent t-test to calculate the results of the experiment. This test will be used because this study has only 1 IV with 2 levels (1Ãâ€"2) and uses between-subjects design, in which the participants will experience different levels of the IV.References Besner, D. , O’Malley, Shannon, & Robidoux, S. (2010). On the Joint Effects of Stimulus Quality, Regularity, and Lexicality When Reading Aloud: New Challenges. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36(3), 750-764. Retrieved June 16, 2010 from PsychARTICLES database. Dodson, Chad S. amp; Schacter, Daniel. L. (2001). If I Had Said It, I Would Remember It: Reducing False Memories with a Distinctiveness Heuristic. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8 (1), 155-161.Retrieved June 14, 2010 from http://pbr. psychonomicjournals. org/content/8/1/155. full. pdf Hourihan, Kathleen L. & Macleod, Colin M. (2008). Directed Forgetting Meets the Production Effect: Distinctive Processing is Resistant to Intentional Forgetting. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, Vol. 62, No. 4, 242-246. Retrieved June 14, 2010 from PsychARTICLES database. Kappel, S. , Harford, M. , Burns, V. & Anderson, N. (1973). Effects of Vocalization on Short-Term Memory for Words. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 101(2), 314-317. Retrieved June 16, 2010 from PsychARTICLES database. MacLeod, C. , Gopie, N. , Hourihan, K. , Neary, K. , & Ozubko, J. (2010).The Production Effect: Delinea tion of a Phenomenon. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36(3). 671-685. Retrieved June 16, 2010 from PsychARTICLES database. McKay, A. , Davis, C. , Savage, G. , & Castles, A. (2008). Semantic Involvement in Reading Aloud: Evidence from a Non-Word Training Study. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34(6), 1495-1517.Retrieved June 18 from PsychARTICLES database. Reynolds, M. , & Besner, D. (2008). Contextual Effects on Reading Aloud: Evidence for Pathway Control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34(1), 50-64. Retrieved June 14, 2010 from PsychARTICLES database. Wilding, J. , & Mohindra, N. (1980). Effects of Subvocal Suppression, Articulating Aloud and Noise on Sequence Recall. British Journal of Psychology, 71(2), 247. Retrieved June 18, 2010 from Academic Source Premier database.

What Is Terrorism, Is It Wrong, And Could It Ever Be...

In Alison M. Jaggar’s paper â€Å"What is Terrorism, Why is it Wrong, and Could it Ever be Morally Permissible?†, she takes the topic of terrorism and tries to bring up information about it in a way to where terrorism can be discussed fairly and examined critically. Terrorism has been defined differently by various people, but many have voiced their concerns about this type of violence. Jaggar tried to develop an account (i.e., in-depth definition) of terrorism that would be consistent, precise, and impartial (Jaggar Pg. 205). For an account to be impartial, there must be a separation of the moral assessment of terrorists’ ends from the moral assessment of the ways or strategies used by them (Jaggar Pg. 206). Jaggar’s proposed account of terrorism is as follows: Terrorism is the use of extreme threats or violence designed to intimidate or subjugate governments, groups, or individuals. It is a tactic of coercion intended to promote further ends that i n themselves may be good, bad or indifferent. Terrorism may be practiced by governments or international bodies or forces, substate groups or even individuals. It s threats or violence are aimed directly or immediately at the bodies or belongings of innocent civilians but these are typically terrorists’ secondary targets; the primary targets of terrorists are the governments, groups or individuals that they wish to intimidate. (Jaggar Pg 209) Her description of terrorism is very comprehensive or inclusive. Furthermore, herShow MoreRelatedAn Article On Drone Strikes1157 Words   |  5 Pagesconsequentialist theorist; in other words, he believed that despite the consequence of an action being good or bad, what was important was the premeditated plan behind the action, was it right or wrong, unassociated to the consequences. 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Rhetorical Analysis of Woodrow Wilsons War Address to...

Rhetorical Analysis of Woodrow Wilsons War Address to Congress With the status of the country’s belligerency heavily in question, an apprehensive President Woodrow Wilson prepared to request from an unmotivated and unprepared country a declaration of war against Germany. After exerting every attempt possible to retain the peace and honor of the United States, the President was finally forced to choose between the two, in which he opted for the latter (Seymour 26). As he sat down to compose his congressional address proposing war, the uncertainty of his decision overwhelmed him. He confided to a member of his cabinet, Frank Cobb, that he had never been as unsure about anything in his life as the judgment he was†¦show more content†¦The same man who was reelected in 1916 on the platform â€Å"he kept us out of war†, who delivered the â€Å"peace without victory† speech, who urged his country to remain neutral â€Å"in action† as well as â€Å"in thought† was now asking Congress to approve American entry into the war. As President Wilson confronted the nation on the evening of April 2, 1917, he presented a case of past offenses coupled with present circumstances in hopes of providing a more effective case for leading America into war (Blakey, 2). He employed antecedent-consequence throughout the beginning of his address to warrant his call for belligerency. By recapitulating the events of German abomination as seen most profoundly in the sinking of United States vessels, Wilson let the record speak for itself. He appealed to the sense of compassion in his audience with the mention of â€Å"hospital ships as ships carrying aid to the stricken people of Belgium....have been sunk with the same reckless lack of concern or principle† (Baker 510) It was these â€Å"hard-hitting charges of outrage and insult by Germany† that stirred Wilson’s listeners (Baker 514). He continued to relate events of the past to his present standpoint by admitting that he was at first â€Å"unable to believe that such things could be done by anyShow MoreRelatedRhetorical Analysis of President Woodrow Wilsons War Message2466 Words   |  10 Pagesbelligerency heavily in question, an apprehensive President Woodrow Wilson prepared to request from an unmotivated and unprepared country a declaration of war against Germany. After exerting every attempt possible to retain the peace and honor of the United States, the President was finally forced to choose between the two, in which he opted for the latter (Seymour 26). As he sat down to compose his congressional address proposing war, the uncertainty of his decision overwhelmed him. He confidedRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Impo rtant Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pages, Rethinking the Cold War Eric Foner, ed., The New American History. Revised and Expanded Edition E SSAYS ON _ T WENTIETH- C ENTURY H ISTORY Edited by Michael Adas for the American Historical Association TEMPLE UNIVERSITY PRESS PHILADELPHIA Temple University Press 1601 North Broad Street Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122 www.temple.edu/tempress Copyright  © 2010 by Temple University All rights reserved Published 2010 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication